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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COR- 
PORATION SCHOOLS AS TO THEIR 
ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, 
AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 



BY 



ALBERT JAMES BEATTY 

A. B. KNOX COLLEGE, 1900 
A.M. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, 1915 



f-^-T^y-^Qo 



THESIS 

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 

DEGREE OF 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

LN EDUCATION 

IN 

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 

OF THE 

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
1917 



A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COR- 
PORATION SCHOOLS AS TO THEIR 
ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, 
AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

BY 
/ 

ALBERT JAMES BEATTY /W 1 

A. B. KNOX COLLEGE, 1900 
A. M. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. 1915 



THESIS 

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 

DEGREE OF 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

IN EDUCATION 

IN 

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 

OF THE 

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
1917 



C '^^lA ■'' - ,_^ 



.< 



^ 



A 



p. of 9. 

AUG 2 lilt 



tr. 



CONTENTS. 



Part One 

Chapter 

I. Introduction : the problem, the purpose, the plan, 
the limitations, the organization of material. 
II. Historical Sketch of Apprenticeship : the rise, 
the growth, and the decay of the gild appren- 
ticeship system. 

III. Public and Private Trade Schools and the Cor- 

poration School: the rise, the growth, and 
the present status of the factory apprentice- 
ship school, the National Association of Cor- 
poration Schools. 

Part Two 

IV. The Efficiency of Corporation Schools as Tested 

by the Business Concerns which Maintain 
Them: the five purposes for which the cor- 
poration school is maintained, conclusions. 
V. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools 
as to Instruction: The Teachers' Efficiency 
Score Card, the scoring of teachers, tabulation 
of results, conclusions. 

VI. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools 
as to Motivation of Work : the motives avail- 
able for different types of schools, the theory 
of motivation, conclusions. 
VII. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools 
as to Curricula and Courses of Study: the 
3 



essential features of curricula, sample curric- 
ula, conclusions. 

VIII. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools 
as to Textbooks and Lesson Sheets: the 
essential features of a good textbook, text- 
books and loose leaf lesson sheets discussed, 
the faults of each, conclusions. 

Part Three 

IX. Summary of Conclusions, — The Cooperative 
School, a Solution of the Problem of Voca- 
tional Education. 



LIST OF TABLES, ILLUSTRATIONS, and 
CURRICULA 

Table 

I. Summary of time spent and list of particular 

investigations. 
II. Corporation continuation schools. 

III. Cooperative special training schools. 

Teachers' Efficiency Score Card. 

IV. Comparative scores made by five students. 

V. Scores of eighteen corporation school teachers. 
VI. Scores of twenty-one teachers in public secondary 

schools and technical schools. 
VII. Graphical representation of the data of Tables 
VI and VII. 

VIII. Cooperating companies and schools. 

Curricula 

A. Mechanics' short course, Packard Motor Car 

Company. 

B. Students' training course in stock room, Western 

Electric Company. 

C. Engineering for college graduates. Western Elec- 

tric Company. 

D. Bridge Engineers, American Bridge Company. 

E. Union School of Salesmanship, Boston. 

F. Electric Engineering, University of Illinois. 

G. Scientific, Crane Technical high school, Chicago. 



A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CORPORATION 

SCHOOLS AS TO THEIR ORGANIZATION 

ADMINISTRATION, AND METHODS 

OF INSTRUCTION 

PART ONE 

Chapter I 
Introduction 

This study is the outgrowth of an interest in voca- 
tional education which the writer developed in pursuing 
a course in that subject. It is an attempt to evaluate a 
single type of organization for vocational education 
known as the corporation school. It is an investigation 
of the training of apprentices and other employees as 
this training is at present conducted by those business 
concerns in the United States which undertake to prepare 
their new employees for efficient service and their old 
employees for better service. 

The purposes of this study are : first, to trace briefly 
the rise and the decline of the old trade-apprenticeship 
system; second, to describe briefly the rise, the growth, 
and the present status of factory apprenticeship schools ; 
third, to study the corporation schools of the United 
States from the point of view of their efficiency ; fourth, 
to show how corporation school directors and instructors 
may make a greater use of such psychological and peda- 
gogical principles as the experience of public secondary 
schools and technical schools has shown to be valuable; 
and fifth, to discover if possible in what manner corpora- 
tion schools on the one hand and public secondary schools 
and technical schools on the other hand may be mutually 

7 



8 Study op Corporation Schools 

helpful in the solution of the problem of vocational edu- 
cation. The solution of the problem proposed in the fifth 
purpose, is the desired outcome of this study. 

With these purposes in view, the writer has, during 
the past two years, personally visited a large number of 
corporation schools in the Middle West, studied their 
organization, visited their classes, and observed their 
methods of instruction; and from a much wider field 
than it has been possible to survey personally, he has 
examined in detail their textbooks and lesson sheets, their 
curricula and courses of study. 

The first step in this investigation was to become rea- 
sonably familiar with the literature of corporation 
schools. This literature was not large and consisted 
mainly of magazine articles describing the work of indi- 
vidual schools. 

The second step was to initiate a systematic gathering 
of information both by personal visitation and by cor- 
respondence. Shortly after beginning to gather this in- 
formation, the writer learned that the National Associa- 
tion of Corporation Schools,^ through one of its commit- 
tees, was undertaking to gather practically the same in- 
formation as that desired for this investigation, and an 
arrangement was made whereby the writer assisted this 
committee in collecting, tabulating, and interpreting the 
data with the understanding that he might use for this 
study any of the data collected. During the year 1916-17 
the writer has been a regularly appointed member of this 
committee and is still acting in that capacity. 

This appointment has been fortunate, for as a mem- 
ber of this committee, — the Committee on Special Train- 
ing Schools, — the writer has had the cooperation and ad- 
vice of the other members of the committee who are recog- 
nized experts in this field. He has had access also to a 

*Refs. 19, 27, 31, 33. (References are numbered serially in each 
chapter.) 



Introduction 9 

vast quantity of the educational materials of these 
schools, and to much confidential information which he 
otherwise could not have obtained. He has also been the 
recipient of many favors at the hands of corporation 
officials and the corporation school directors. 

Throughout this investigation, comparisons have con- 
stantly been made with public-school organization, ad- 
ministration, and practice; and an attempt has been 
made to discuss these observations in such a manner as 
to enable administrators and instructors of both public 
and corporation schools to profit, not only by their own 
inadequacies but also by the points of superiority of the 
other type of school. 

This study has not been limited to the collection and 
evaluation of statistical data, nor have the conclusions 
reached been drawn wholly or largely from such data, 
though they are frequently reinforced by such statistical 
information as is available. Such a statistical study, if 
feasible, would be highly valuable, but the comparative 
recency of the corporation school movement, and the lack 
of a recognized system or uniformity in keeping the rec- 
ords of these schools make such a study impossible. 

This is not a discussion of the need of industrial train- 
ing. This need has already demanded and received a 
large place in the educational literature of the past three 
decades,^ and numerous societies have been formed for 
the purpose of fostering industrial training.^ 

This is not a historical study, though it has seemed 
necessary to preface it with a historical sketch as a back- 
ground or point of departure. The history of appren- 
ticeship is a most tempting topic, but that history has 
been written in a number of extensive studies,* and the 
real purpose of this study precludes more than a brief 

«Ref. 2, Chap. VII. Refs. 24, 28, 29. 
"Refs. 28, 80. 
*Ref8. 1-8. 



10 Study of Corporation Schools 

excursion into any subsidiary fields however inviting 
they may be. 

The material of this thesis is organized into three 
parts: Part One, comprising Chapters I, II, and III is 
a preliminary survey of the field; Part Two, consisting 
of Chapters IV to VIII inclusive, is the main body of the 
thesis ; Part Three, consisting of Chapter IX, is a sum- 
mary of the conclusions reached and a discussion of them. 

Chapter I sets forth the general plan of the investi- 
gation. 

Chapter II is a historical sketch of apprenticeship. 
It traces briefly the rise, the character, and the causes 
of the decline of the old craft-apprenticeship ; it empha- 
sizes the economic and social character of the institution 
of apprenticeship, and the economic, social, and indus- 
trial evolution which has demanded a new system of ap- 
prenticeship. 

Chapter III recites the principal causes which led to 
the factory apprenticeship system, and traces the estab- 
lishment of private and public trade and technical schools 
and the factory apprenticeship school. This chapter in- 
troduces the materials and facts which have been col- 
lected by the writer in his personal visitation of corpor- 
ation schools. It treats of the organization and the work 
of the National Association of Corporation Schools and 
shows the growing interest of business concerns in the 
training of their employees. It describes the various 
types of corporation schools differentiated to meet differ- 
ent needs. It cites the fact that the trade apprenticeship 
school and the school of retail salesmanship touch two 
very large and important groups of workers, and sug- 
gests that so far as the interests of these groups are con- 
cerned, the point of helpful contact between the corpora- 
tion school and the public school is to be found in some 
form of cooperative organization. 

Part Two presents the detailed information which 



Introduction 11 

the writer has collected in pursuing this study which has 
occupied approximately one fourth of his time for two 
years. The following summary shows something of the 
extent of the study, though it makes no account of the 
amount of committee work which the writer has per- 
formed. 

TABLE I. 

Number of corporation schools and company officials with whom cor- 
respondence has been carried on 49 

Number of corporation school and company officials interviewed 41 

Number of corporation schools visited 28 

Number of public secondary schools and technical schools visited 19 

Number of cooperative schools visited 8 

Number of days spent in visiting corporation schools 10 

Number of days spent in visiting public secondary schools and tech- 
nical schools 20 

Number of 'teacher efficiency' scorings made in corporation schools 19 

Number of 'teacher efficiency' scorings made in public secondary schools 

and technical schools 39 

Number of schools whose curricula and courses have been examined .... 46 
Number of corporation school courses for which sets of lesson sheets 

have been examined 31 

Number of 'corporation school' textbooks examined 27 

Number of other textbooks examined 75 

Number of corporation school classrooms and shops visited 44 

Number of public secondary school and technical school classrooms 

visited 46 



In Part Two the writer undertakes to determine the 
efficiency of corporation schools : to compare the corpora- 
tion school on the one hand with public secondary schools 
and technical schools on the other and to show how the 
work of these two types of schools may be mutually 
helpful in the solution of the problem of vocational edu- 
cation. 

Chapter IV introduces the main part of the thesis 
and undertakes to show the efficiency of corporation 
schools as determined by such standards as are set up by 
business concerns themselves. The aims advanced by 
business concerns in the establishment of training de- 
partments are : first, to develop to the limit the efficiency 
of the individual employee ; and second, to increase in- 



12 Study of Corporation Schools 

dustrial efficiency in general. They determine this effi- 
ciency by the extent to which they contribute to the fol- 
lowing results: first, an increased supply of trained 
employees; second, an increase in the number of men 
quEdified for promotion; third, an improved product; 
fourth, a decreased turnover of labor; and fifth, less 
waste of materials and fewer accidents. 

Chapter V describes that part of this study in which 
the corporation schools have been compared with public 
secondary schools and technical schools in the matter of 
instruction. It describes in detail the ''teachers' effi- 
ciency" score card which has been ^ developed and which 
embodies the ten points used as a basis of making this 
comparison ; and sets forth in detail the procedure and 
the results of this scoring. 

Chapter VI is a discussion of motives. It treats of 
the various motives available for both types of schools, 
and undertakes to show that corporation schools have an 
advantage over the other type of schools in certain mo- 
tives which seem to be inherent in the corporation school. 

Chapter VII is a comparison of the courses of study 
and curricula used in corporation schools with those used 
in public secondary schools and technical schools. This 
comparison is based upon an examination of the outlines 
of courses and curricula found in the literature secured 
from these schools, and is made on three points : logical 
arrangement of courses and course-topics, time allotments 
to various courses and course-topics, and appropriateness 
of subject matter. 

Chapter VIII is a comparison of the two types of 
schools as to lesson-sheets and textbooks. Such principles 
of textbook making as seem to be commonly recognized 
are formulated, and the lesson-sheets and textbooks which 
have been secured from both types of schools have been 
examined in the light of these principles. 

Part Three, consisting of Chapter IX, is a considera- 



Introduction 13 

tion of the fundamental principles which govern the 
character of education in a democracy, and a discussion 
of the inadequacy of the corporation school in the light 
of these principles as a solution of the problem of voca- 
tional education. This chapter summarizes the conclu- 
sions reached in the chapters of Part One and Part Two, 
and shows how the cooperative trade and continuation 
school which may be made to embody the points of ad- 
vantage of both corporation schools on the one hand, and 
of public secondary schools and technical schools on the 
other, offers the nearest approach to the solution of the 
problem of vocational education. 



14 Study of Corporation Schools 



Chapter II. 
Historical Sketch of Apprenticeship 

Business concerns have not usually been credited with 
philanthropic motives, and their assumption of the re- 
sponsibility for the training of their employees has not 
usually been attributed to philanthropy. This task has 
been undertaken as a matter of necessity which has grown 
out of economic and social conditions. 

The most important of these factors are, the decline 
of the old apprenticeship system^ which was so successful 
in the small shop of the past which, within the last gen- 
eration has given way to the factory ; and the inability 
of other organized means of education to provide in an 
adequate measure that specific trade and vocational train- 
ing demanded in the modern factory. 

The apprenticeship of the gild system which served 
tradesmen so well in the past, but which is to the present 
generation in America almost unknown, had its origin 
in the social and industrial fabric of a time so remote that 
the earliest historians speak of it as a matter of course.^ 

' ' The craft gild or trade gilds of the Middle Ages had 
their origin in necessity. All sorts of industrial frauds 
and shoddy workmanship were practiced by the more 
irresponsible artisans, and the gilds were originally 
formed to protect their members against unskilled and 
dishonest labor. ' '^ 

Apprenticeship reached its greatest success as a means 
of training skilled workmen in England and on the Con- 
tinent during the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.* 

met. 31, p. 121. 
2Refs. 10, 11, 12. 
»Ref. 13, p. 100. 
*Ref. 1, 3, 4. 



Apprenticeship IS 

But even at its best the gild apprenticeship system was 
not a complete or satisfactory solution of the industrial 
situation of the period. True, it did furnish to the young 
man who was fortunate enough to secure an apprentice- 
ship, not only the mastery of a skilled trade but also 
access to the only practical education of the times, and a 
social standing fully equal to that of his master. Masters 
were required not only to teach the apprentice his trade 
and to furnish him good food, clothing, and shelter, but 
also to educate him and to give him religious instruction.^ 
The English apprentice from the Fourteenth to the Six- 
teenth centuries became to all intents and purposes, dur- 
ing his apprenticeship, a member of his master's house- 
hold, entitled to participate in all social activities upon a 
perfect equality with his master's family. 

The price the apprentice paid for these privileges was 
not small. It included in some cases, the payment of a 
very considerable sum of money^ and the giving of a 
bond to remain in the service of his master usually for a 
period of seven years without wages or other remunera- 
tion than that mentioned above. It was a big price to 
pay for the learning of a trade but there was no other 
way. Apprenticeship was the only door through which 
one could become a master or even a journeyman entitled 
to ply a skilled trade. The privileges of skilled workmen 
and masters were a much desired goal but the journey 
thereto was long, arduous and expensive. 

This golden age of apprenticeship corresponds very 
closely to the period af cathedral building on the con- 
tinent, and the high character of the craftsmanship is 
still attested by many of those noble structures. 

The regulation of apprenticeship was usually exer- 
cised by the gilds, or craft gilds, which included all the 
members of any particular craft in each town or parish, 

•"Ref. 1, pp. 50 et. seq. 
«Ref. 1, Chapter II. 



16 Study OP Coeporation Schools 

and which usually ruled with an iron hand. The weavers, 
the dyers, the spinners, the goldsmiths, the carpenters, 
and the workers in practically every skilled trade were 
organized into craft gilds which controlled not only the 
work of their particular trades but the individual and 
social life of the members as well. 

Ai^ stated above, the apprenticeship system was not a 
complete or satisfactory solution of the industrial prob- 
lem. At the very time when the system was at its best the 
lower strata of society, — the serfs and the unskilled la- 
borers — were without education or training of any kind, 
and their suffering and degradation were almost beyond 
description. At the same time, the gentry as a class were 
densely ignorant of any useful occupations and lived in 
idleness, filth and vice.*^ 

The stratification of society was horizontal and dis- 
tinct, and the oppression and misery of the lower strata 
resulted partly from the upper class, the gentry, but most 
of all from the middle class dominated by the gilds.* 

The decline of the golden age of the gilds and of ap- 
prenticeship dates from the middle of the Sixteenth Cen- 
tury, and may be attributed, in part at least, to the arro- 
gance of the gilds and to the restrictions which they 
placed upon skilled labor. ''Limitation of the number 
of apprentices and the long term of apprenticeship re- 
sulted in prejudice against the gilds and a resulting un- 
willingness to recognize the privileges enjoyed by the 
gilds. "9 

The specific events which mark the beginning of the 
decline of apprenticeship in England are: the passage 
of the Artificers Act, or the Statute of Apprenticeship, 
as it is called by some writers,^^ in 1562 ; and the law of 
1601, making it compulsory upon free holders and mas- 

'Ref. 14. 

«Ref. 15, p. 3-4, and 275. 
»Ref. 2a, pp. 91, 92. 
WRef. 4, p. 88. 



Apprenticeship 17 

ters to accept as apprentices such beggar children as 
might be designated by the parish clerk.^ ^ 

The former of these laws provided : first, for govern- 
ment control of the amount! of wages which might be de- 
manded,^ 2 thus prohibiting the extortion frequently 
charged to gilds; second, a seven-year apprenticeship 
open only to the sons of freemen, and prohibiting any 
one^^ not having served an apprenticeship from carrying 
on any craft ; and third, the appointment of government 
officers to enforce the regulation of the gilds. The pre- 
amble of this law states that its object was to reenact, to 
codify, and enforce the many regulations which had been 
permitted by gild influence to become inoperative.^* 

Writers disagree as to the effect of the Artificers Act 
upon the gilds, ^^ but whether due to the operation of this 
act or not, the influence of the gilds waned steadily after 
the Sixteenth Century. 

The second law, called the Act of 1601, entitled An 
Act for the Relief of the Poor, elevated the apprentice- 
ship system to a position of great economic importance 
while it produced an almost exactly opposite effect ulti- 
mately, upon the gilds.^^ The fifth section of this law 
provided that, "parish authorities may bind out such 
poor children, male and female, as apprentices until they 
arrived at the age of maturity. "^^ This law had the effect 
of continuing the institution of apprenticeship at a time 
when the gilds were on the decline. In fact the operation 
of this law had much to do with this decline. The ultimate 
influence upon apprenticeship, however, was unfavor- 
able. Naturally the great increase in the number of ap- 
prentices resulting from this law had its counterpart in 

"Ref. 1, p. 66. 

"Ref. 4, p. 91. 

"Ref. 4, p. 103. 

"Ref. 4. 

"'Ref. 4. Chap. III. 

"Ref. 16, Chap. VI. p. 322. 

"Ref. 1, p. 61. 



18 Study of Corporation Schools 

a deterioration of the system. Masters, no longer subject 
to gild regulations, neglected the education of their ap- 
prentices, and denied them the social equality of the 
home. No general law to compel masters to attend to the 
education of *' parish" apprentices, aside from craft in- 
struction, was enacted in England until 1802.-^ 

Other influences which contributed to the decline of 
apprenticeship were: the rise of the rural industries; 
the waning influence of the gilds owing to the rapid in- 
crease of skilled labor, making it impossible for the gilds 
to control longer the price or the conditions of labor; 
and later, the rise of capitalism and the factory sys- 
tem. This decline covers the period from the middle of 
the Sixteenth Century to the present time. While the 
number of apprentices was greatly increased as the result 
of the act of 1601, during the Seventeenth Century the 
efficiency of the apprenticeship declined rapidly from the 
points of view of industry and of social welfare. Since 
the Seventeenth Century the number of apprentices has 
gradually decreased, while the demand for skilled trades- 
men has uniformly increased. 

The industrial history of this period of decline is 
marked by such dark pages as child labor and the debtos^'s 
prison. ^^ The larger number of apprentices and the de- 
cline of the vigilance of the gilds in governing the treat- 
ment of apprentices, made it possible for unscrupulous 
masters to take large numbers of apprentices, and then 
by economies in feeding, housing, and educating them to 
make their services extremely profitable. In these condi- 
tions is found the origin of the almost unbelievable evils 
of child labor in the Nineteenth Century in the factories 
of England and the United States. ^^ 

What has been said of apprenticeship in England and 

"Ref. 1, p. 61. 

"Ref. 1, pp. 62 et seq. 

*>R€f. 17, pp. 14 et aeq. 



Apprenticeship 19 

on the Continent applies in a large measure to the United 
States. Trade apprenticeships, however, were never so 
common in the United States as in Europe, owing to the 
advent of the factory system before the United States 
had attained any great importance as a manufacturing 
nation. The condition of apprentices and the laws relat- 
ing to them in the American colonies were generally more 
favorable to the apprentice than in Europe. In Massa- 
chusetts, in 1642, in Connecticut, in 1650, and in Vir- 
ginia, in Queen Anne 's reign, legislation provided for the 
instruction of apprentices in reading, in the laws of the 
country, and in religion, over a century before such en- 
actments were made in England. ^^ 

The factory system in Europe was not an outgrowth 
of the introduction of steam power and labor saving 
machinery, but it was the direct growth of the newer 
apprenticeship system which developed, in part at least, 
as the result of the Artificers^ Law and the Law of 1601. 

But whatever may have been the origin of the factory 
system, it has, by the division of labor, and by the use of 
power machinery, revolutionized many of the skilled 
trades. Now, instead of mastering a trade and turning 
out a finished product, the factory worker needs but to 
become an expert in a single process, or in the operation 
of a machine which makes, not a complete product, but 
a minor part of it. The factory thus has a tendency 
to develop piece-workers rather than all-round mechanics 
or masters of trades, and has resulted in an almost entire 
discontinuance of trade apprenticeships. 

In 1895, forty typical building-trades employers had 
12,000 men and only eighty regular apprentices, though 
the normal number allowed according to union rules was 
1,600.22 The United States Census 23 in 1909-10 shows 
a total of 77,371 apprentices in the United States, or one 

«Ref. 1, p. 61. 
»Ref. 16, p. 1142. 
»Ref. 22a, p. 52. 



20 Study of Corporation Schools 

for every 322 adult workers, when there was approxi- 
mately 25,000,000 wage earners in occupations aside from 
agriculture. 

'^ The rapid development of labor saving machinery in 
the Nineteenth Century, and the growing complexity of 
manufacturing and marketing processes have created a 
demand for skilled workmen in almost every line of man- 
ufacture and business, far beyond the ability of any here- 
tofore known method of apprenticeship to supply. In 
this condition is found the basis of the need for a new 
method of apprenticeship. The evolution of this new 
method of apprenticeship is described in the next 
chapter. 



Trade and Corporation Schools 21 



Chapter III 

Public and Private Trade Schools, and the 
Corporation School 

The assumption by organized society of the responsi- 
bility of teaching any new subject has always been pre- 
ceded by private enterprise assuming that responsibility,^ 
from motives of either business or philanthropy. If the 
private project meets with success and popular approval, 
the burden is usually somewhat tardily assumed by the 
public. Hence it was, that long before public sentiment 
had become conscious of the duty of assuming the burden 
of teaching the prospective industrial worker the rudi- 
ments or the mastery of a trade or vocation, first, trades- 
mens' organizations and later private philanthropy had 
felt the need and had provided for it by establishing trade 
schools. Business concerns had also succumbed to the 
pressure of necessity and had undertaken the task of 
training their young workers for various positions. 

The most notable, because the most successful exam- 
ples of craft gild schools for apprentices are to be found 
in Germany.2 

' ' In Germany as in no other country, the people have 
been unwilling to break with the past, ' ' and a conscious 
effort has been made to perpetuate by legal enactments, 
the handicraftsman and the small tradesman, and espe- 
cially the institution of apprenticeship. The effect of this 
legislation is shown in the statement that "30 per cent 
of German industry is still carried on under the handi- 
craft system. ' '^ 

^Ref. 14, p. 232. 

*Ref. 16, pp. 899, et seq. 

•Ref. 17, and Ref. 22, p. 775. 



22 Study of Corporation Schools 

These ends have been accomplished by enacting two 
quite distinct sets of laws, one affecting the small trades- 
man and the gilds and the other those phases of industry 
affected by the factory system.^ The advantages of the 
apprenticeship system have been maintained by legally 
restoring the powers and privileges of the gilds. * ' Nine- 
tenths of the present trade schools {Facliscliulen) are the 
work of the gild schools, the origin of many of which is 
in the Middle Ages/'^ ''Of the 251 industrial schools 
participating in an educational exposition in Dresden, 
in 1898, 88 were founded by societies, 48 by the state, and 
47 by private individuals. ' '^ While it has been the policy 
of most of the German states to assume the control and 
assist in the support of these schools,'^ many of them still 
retain, in a large measure, their original character. 

Gild schools in France in the Middle Ages were nu- 
merous, and their industrial importance was great, but 
the arrogance of the gilds brought a reaction upon them- 
selves in 1776 which greatly limited their powers, and the 
drastic laws of 1791 definitely abolished the gilds. 

It was left for private enterprise to initiate the move- 
ment to rehabilitate French industrial training, which 
had been so ruthlessly destroj^ed by the revolution. The 
Duke de la Rochelle, at his own expense established a 
school ' ' with a department for industrial training, which 
was the first institution for special trade instruction in 
France. ' '^ It was declared a national school by the First 
Republic in 1799. Upon this humble foundation, has 
been developed a thorough system of state industrial and 
technical schools. 

In Great Britain, the movement was somewhat later 
in developing, and private enterprise is credited with in- 

*Ref. 20, pp. 7-8. 

oRef. 16, p. 905; Ref. 18, pp. 530, 536; Ref. 22, p. 775. - 

•Ref. 16, p. 872. 

'Ref. 16, p. 874; Ref. 22, p. 775. 

•Ref. 16, p. 704; Ref. 21, p. 98. 



Trade and Corporation Schools 23 

stituting the movement which has grown in recent years 
into a real interest in vocational training. This move- 
ment was initiated about 1784, by David Hale, who built 
at his own cost, a boarding house and school for five hun- 
dred charity children from the New Lanark cotton 
mills. "9 

The modern industrial technical school and technical 
school movement dates from 1801, in which year Dr. 
George Burbeck, established mechanics' classes at An- 
derson's University, at Glasgow; and it received a new 
impetus in the founding of the Mechanics' and Appren- 
tices' Library in 1823. ''The first building erected in 
England with accommodations for the various depart- 
ments of scientific work for the dyer, the carpenter, the 
mason, and the machine maker, was built by private 
subscription for the Manchester Mechanics ' Institute, in 
1824. "10 —s^ 

The development of trade apprenticeship schools in 
the United States may be said to date from the activity 
of the Worcester (Massachusetts) County Mechanics' 
Association, which was formed in 1841 for the purpose 
of ''perfecting the mechanics' art", and which in 1866 
opened a school for apprentices with 140 members the 
first year. 11 The New York Trade School, foundedi^ by 
Col. Richard T. Auchmuty, in 1881 was also "a pioneer 
venture. ' ' 

As to public industrial education, one authority 
states,! 3 that up to 1870, no school of an industrial char- 
acter existed except the higher institutions established as 
the result of the first Morrill Act, passed in 1862. 

Though private industrial and technical schools, and 
schools fostered by trade unions, increased in number i* 

•Ref. 18, p. 6. 

lORef. 18, p. 25. 

"Ref. 19, p. 47. 

^=Ref. 16, pp. 20-22 and 987. 

"Ref. 16, p. 20. 

"Ref. 16, Chap. I. 



24 Study of Corporation Schools 

these schools were quite unequal to the task of developing 
competent workers, fast enough to meet the growing de- 
mands of industry. Public sentiment, too, was slow in 
developing to a point where industrial and trade training 
seemed to be a public responsibility. Business concerns 
were therefore forced to undertake the training of their 
jown apprentices. 

This condition existed both in the United States and 
in Great Britain, and to a less extent in Germany, because 
the German State early recognized the necessity for state 
support of industrial and apprenticeship schools.^ ^ 
~ So far as the writer has been able to ascertain, the first 
apprenticeship school maintained by a business corpora- 
tion was established by the Chaix Printing Company of 
Paris, in 1863.^^ The oldest American corporation school 
is that founded by the R. Hoe Printing Press Company 
of New York in 1875. ^^ Notwithstanding these few 
pioneer corporation schools, the movement did not attain 
any considerable impetus until about 1905,^^ since which 
time the growth in the number of such schools has been 
quite rapid. 

A corporation school as defined for this study is a 
school maintained by a business concern, quite indepen- 
dently of outside control, for the purpose of fitting its 
new employees for efficient service, or for the further 
training of its older employees to fit them for positions 
of greater responsibility, as foremen, executives, or tech- 
nical experts. 

This definition is amplified by the aims set forth by 
the National Association of Corporation Schools. This 
Association^^ is composed of over one hundred business 
concerns which maintain apprenticeship schools, and in 

»Ref. 23; Ref. 21, pp. 153-4; Ref. 21, p. 9. 

"Ref. 16, p. 857. 

"Ref. 16, p. 23; pp. 207-8. 

"Ref. 16, p. 145 et seq. 

i«Rof. 27, PT5. 27-34. 



Trade and Corporation Schools 25 

addition to business concerns, a large number of indi- 
vidual members who are in sympathy with the move- 
ment. 

The aims2<^ of this association as set forth in its con- 
stitution are : ' ' first, to develop the individual employee 
to his highest efficiency ; second, to increase the efficiency 
of industry ; and third, to influence courses in established 
educational institutions more favorably toward indus- 
try. ' ' The first two of these aims dominate, to a marked 
degree, all the corporation schools visited by the writer, 
and the literature of other schools not visited indicates 
that these aims are practically universal. 

It is pertinent here to describe briefly the National 
Association of Corporation Schools whose aims are set 
forth above ; for while this association does not include, 
by any means, all the business concerns which conduct ^, 
apprenticeship schools, its aims and the means by which 
it undertakes to accomplish them are doubtless applica- 
ble to most corporation schools. The National Associa- 
tion of Corporation Schools was organized at New York 
University, January 24th, 1913, ^i where representatives 
from forty-eight concerns maintaining such schools had 
assembled in response to a general invitation issued by 
the New York Edison Company, and the National Cash 
Register Company, of Dayton, Ohio. The constitution 
of this Association proposes the means by which the aims 
stated above may be realized. Section 1^2 says, ''The 
object of the Association is to aid corporations in the ed- 
ucation of their employees by providing a forum for the 
interchange of ideas, and by collecting and making avail- 
able, data as to successful and unsuccessful plans in edu- 
cating employees. ' ' 

Membership in the Association is of three classes : 
Class A. composed of concerns which maintain corpora- 

^'ORef. 27, p. 9. 

"Ref. 31, pp. 50-54, Ref. 32. 

==Ref. 31, p. 32. 



26 Study of Corporation Schools 

tion schools; Class B. composed of officials of schools 
maintained by Class A. members ; and Class C. composed 
of individuals who are in sympathy with the objects of 
the association. 23 

No sooner had the Association fairly got to work, than 
the great diversity of educational interests which are en- 
gaging business concerns became apparent. These vari- 
ous types of educational efforts are clearly shown by the 
enumeration of the several committees^^ to which the 
Association has assigned specific phases of corporation 
school work. This work is assigned to the following 
committees : 

1. Special training schools, 

2. Advertising, selling, and distribution schools, 

3. Retail salesmanship schools, 

4. Office work schools. 

5. Unskilled labor, 

6. Trade apprenticeship schools, 

7. Public education, 

8. Employment plans, 

9. Safety and health, 

10. Allied institutions, 

11. Vocational guidance, 

12. Administration and supervision. 

Each of the first six committees represents a distinct 
type of school whose characteristics are indicated by the 
name of the committee. The other committees, except the 
twelfth, whose function is obvious, represent the means 
by which the Association undertakes to realize its second 
and third aims ; they embody the broader outlook of cor- 
poration school administrators upon the great problem of 
*' increasing industrial efficiency'' through social uplift, 
and through a more general solution of the problem of 

23Ref. 31, p. 32. 
2<Re£. 27, pp. 23-25. 



Tbade and Corporation Schools 27 

vocational training than is furnished by the corporation 
school. 

We now take up the discussion of the six types of cor- 
poration schools, and reserve for the latter part of this 
chapter the discussion of the means of realizing the third 
aim of the Association. The second aim and its accom- 
plishment, we discuss only incidentally. 

1. Special Training Schools 

The ''special training school" is a term applied to! 
the training departments which business concerns main- 
tain for college graduates and other technical men. * ' It 
is an organized effort to produce by training, all-round 
men whereas the present tendency in organization is to 
train specialists. Some key-note words will keep the 
purposes of special training schools before us. 

"Breadth, round out experience. 

''Make company men before you make department 
men. 

' ' Know the system as a whole. 

' ' Make men more versatile. 

' ' Get the theory plus the practice. 

' ' Broaden their vision. ' ' 

The above quotations'^ present an approach to the 
ideal purpose of the special training schools, an approach 
which is seldom even approximated in practice. 

The students who are enrolled in these schools usually 
enter directly from college and in the majority of cases 
they have had little or no practical business, or execu- 
tive26 work ; and the purpose in such schools is to make 
as quickly and as economically as possible that vital con- 
tact between the theoretical work of the technical school 
and the practical routine of the manufacturing or com- 
mercial institution. 

*Ref. 19, p. 250. 



28 Study of Corporation Schools 

In attempting a classification of the special training 
schools, based upon printed materials secured from the 
various companies the writer encountered a difficult task 
because of the great variety of schools maintained. This 
diversity consists not only in the specific purposes for 
which the schools are maintained but also in the organi- 
zation and the methods employed to accomplish those 
purposes.2''' 

An examination of the literature of special training 
schools shows three dominant purposes in these schools : 
first, to train new employees for specific work ; second, to 
teach a business as a whole ; and third, to help employees 
to fit themselves for advancement. The first of these pur- 
poses provides in reality a species of apprenticeship, 
though the aim is a narrow specific ability instead of the 
mastery of an entire field or trade. The second purpose 
has developed because individual corporations have come 
to realize that an employee can be brought to his highest 
efficiency only by giving him a broad and intelligent view 
of the entire business as well as a mastery of the specific 
duties of his position. The third purpose applies to those 
employees who have shown themselves capable and 
worthy of promotion. 

The plans of organization by which these purposes 
are attained are classified for the purposes of this study 
into five types: A, B, C, D, and E. 

Type A schools are distinguished by the fact that the 
student-employee spends all of his time in school and 
does no productive work. This type of school is designed 
to get definite results in the minimum of time by inten- 
sive study. These courses are open usually only to tech- 
nical graduates and to exceptionally efficient old em- 
ployees. 

Type B schools differ from those of Type A not in the 
purpose but in the method. Under this plan, students 

2'Ref. 27, pp. 81-83. 



Trade and Corporation Schools 29 

divide their time between study and productive work, 
the proportion varying with different companies. 

There may be one serious handicap for this latter 
type of school. This is due to the attitude toward these 
student workers of some foremen and department heads 
under whom students acquire their experience. The feel- 
ing on the part of these foremen that the student gradu- 
ates are being trained for positions better than those they 
themselves hold or hope to hold, has seemed to prejudice 
them toward the special-training-course men to such an 
extent as seriously to handicap the system. At least one 
large concern which has been conducting such a school 
for several years, has recently decided either to abandon 
the plan or to modify it in some manner so as to overcome 
the difficulty. The author feels that this particular dif- 
ficulty is not common as the above case is the only one 
which has been called to his attention as serious enough 
to endanger the success of the plan. 

Type C schools are marked by the following charac- 
teristics : 

1. The student's time is made as nearly entirely pro- 

ductive as possible, no time being given by the 
company for related instruction ; 

2. Students are assigned to work in various depart- 

ments of the plant where they work under the 
same conditions as other employees ; 

3. There is little or no supervision aside from that 

given by department superintendents and 
foremen ; 

4. Students are assigned to all or at least to several 

departments in turn, the better to learn the 
whole business of the firm. 

The manner of selecting the students for this type of 
school is the same as in Types A and B. 

Type D includes the company continuation school. 
The continuation school is a German product, but it is 



30 ' Study of Corporation Schools 

gradually makingi its way into the educational system of 
the United States. The broad utilitarian aim which per- 
vades the continuation school is expressed in the phrase 
' ' Learn while earning and earn while learning. ' ' 

The purposes of the company continuation school are : 
first, to aid employees to equip themselves for advance- 
ment by specific training for more technical work ; second, 
to enable employees to continue their general education ; 
third, to increase the efficiency of employees in their 
present positions; and fourth, to discover for each em- 
ployee the particular kind of work which he can do most 
efficiently. 

This type of school is marked by a somewhat broader 
educational outlook than is present in some of the other 
types, as is shown by the provision that a considerable 
part of the student's time be given to general education 
instead of confining him to such work as promises greater 
immediate efficiency in a particular position. 

In contrast with the rigid methods of selecting stu- 
dents in the first three types of schools, here we find no 
restrictions whatever. Any employee who desires to do 
so may enroll as a continuation student and attendance 
is usually voluntary, though it is required in some schools 
for certain classes of students. 

The number of continuation schools is rapidly increas- 
ing, and the writer believes that this type of school is 
destined to play an increasingly important part in the 
solution of the problem of industrial training and effi- 
ciency. 

Table II compiled by the writer in 1916 shows the 
names of the companies which are maintaining continua- 
tion schools, and the characteristics of their work. 
p Type E is the cooperative school. This type is sim- 
ilar to Type B, except that the study part of the school 
is conducted under and administered by public or private 
school authorities. In case of cooperation with public 



Trade and Corporation Schools 



31 



schools the expense of the ' ' educational ' ' work is usually 
paid out of public funds, while the company pays the 
employee for the time he spends on productive work. In 
some cases the company pays the student for the time 
spent in school. 

TABLE II— TYPE D. COMPANY CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 



Companies 



Employees 



Subjects'* 



Time 



American Bridge. 



Bing & Bing 

Chicago Telephone. , 
Commonwealth Edi- 
son 

Commonwealth Steel . 
Curtis Publishing. . . 



Mountain States Tele- 
phone & Telegraph 



Newport News Ship- 
building & Dry 
Dock 

New York Edison. . . 



Norton & Norton 
Grinding 

Public Service Cor- 
poration of New 
Jersey 



any 

any 
any 

any 

any under 22 

any 



Fore River Ship- 
building any 

General Electric . . . office 

B. F. Goodrich .... any 

Goodyear Tire & 

Rubber foremen & 

inspectors 

International Har- 
vester boys 16-20 

Illinois Steel any 

Kops Bros any 

Metropolitan Life 

Insurance any 

typists 
any 



any 

any 
any 

machinists 
commercial 



(g) (s) bridge 
building 

(g) mechanics 

(s) plant main- 
tenance 

(g) (s) 

(g) 

(g) office and 
commercial 
work 

(g) English 
(s accounting 
(g) reading 
course 



(g) drafting, 

shop practice 
(g) 
(g) 

(s) life insurance 
(g) stenography 
(s) actuarial 
work 

(g) electricity 
& telephone 
work 



(g) mechanical 

drawing 
(g) (s) technical 

accounting 



(8) 

(g) 



evening 

& (c) 

evening 

(c) 
day 
day 



evening 

evening 
evening 



day & 
evenins 



evening 

day 

(c) 
evening 

evening 



(0) 



evening 

day & 
evening 

evening 



day & 
evening 



32 



Study op Corporation Schools 



Prudential Insurance any 
Cumberland Tele- 
phone & Telegraph any 

Southern Bell Tele- 
phone & Telegraph 

Simons Manufactur- 
ing any 

Standard Oil of New 

York any 

Swift & Company . . . office boys 

Tidewater Oil clerks 

Westfnghouse Air 

Brake office boys 

Western Electric . . . any 

Winchester Arms . . . any 

Yale & Towne Man- 
ufacturing any 



(g) 

(s) telephone 
practice 

(s) accounting 
(g) 

(8) 
(g) 

(s) accounting 

(g) 

(g) 

(g) English, me- 
chanical draw- 
ing 

(g) efficiency, 
mechanical 
drawing 



day 

evening 

day 

day 



day 

Sat. P. M. 

day 
evening 



evening 
evening 



*(g) general subjects, (s) special subjects, (c) correspondence. 

In this type of school we find at work the principle 
of cooperation. It represents a recognition on the part 
of business concerns, of the applicability to their educa- 
tional work, of that principle which in recent years has 
resulted in so many changes in the conduct of corporate 
business. 

There are two distinct plans of cooperation: co- 
operation between several business concerns in the same 
or related fields, and cooperation between business con- 
cerns and public or private schools. Table III, based 
upon data collected in 1916, shows typical schools of 
Type E. 



I 



Trade and Corporation Schools 



33 



TABLE III.— COOPERATIVE SPECIAL TRAINING SCHOOLS 



Schools 



Cooperating Companies 



Company Schools. 

Central Stations Institute 



Commonwealth Edison Company- 
Federal Sign Company (Electric) 
Illinois Northern Utilities Company 
(Owning 21 subsidiary compan- 
ies) 
Middle West UtUities Company 
(Comprising 140 subsidiary com- 
panies) 
Public Service Company of North- 
ern 111. (comprising five compan- 
ies) 



National Electric Light Assn. 
(Correspondence courses) 



Electric light companies in all parts 
of the United States 



Denver Gas and Electric Light Com- 
pany, Gas & Electric School 
( Correspondence courses ) 



Thirty-nine companies in all parts 

of the United States 



Public Schools. 

University of Cincinnati 



University of Akron 
University of iPittsburgh 
Georgia Institute of Technology 
Dayton High School 
Cass Technical High School 



Departments of commerce in sixteen 
large universities 



Cincinnati Milling Company 
National Cash Register Company 
Western Electric Company and 
"Nearly 100 other firms, repre- 
senting the principal phases of 
construction, manufacture and 
transportation."^ 

Thirty-four cooperating firms. 
Forty-eight cooperating firms. 
Seven cooperating firms. 
National Cash Register Company. 
Thirty-one cooperating firms, 

(partly trade apprenticeship 

courses) 

National City Bank, New York. 



Schools whose aim is to discover and develop selling 
ability are divided into two groups : one having reference 
to wholesaling, selling to the trade, and the selling of 
proprietary or patented goods either to individual cus- 
tomers or to the trade, and the other having reference to 
the development of retail salesmanship. Each of these 
two groups is the subject of study of a separate commit- 
tee of the National Association of Corporation Schools, 
the former being assigned to a Committee on Advertising, 

"Ref. 48, p. 16. 



34 



Study of Corporation Schools 



Selling and Distribution, and the latter to the Committee 
on Retail Salesmanship. 
2. Advertising, Selling, and Distribution Schools 
The scope of the work carried on in schools of this 
character is shown in the following outline :^^ 

1. Salesmanship 

a) relation to other phases of the business, 

b) salesman's dignified work, 

c) opportunities in salesmanship, 

d) importance of selling knowledge to every busi- 

ness man, 

e) selling as a stepping stone to executive posi- 

tions, 

f ) what the salesman has an opportunity to learn, 

g) the salesmen are ''born not made" fallacy re- 

futed, 

h) the field of marketing, 

i) divisions of selling, 

j) definition of a sale, 

k) factors of a sale, 

1) the selling process, 

m) the training of salesmen.^o 



3. Retail Salesmanship Schools 

The field of retail salesmanship includes approxi- 
mately one million people in the United States, a larger 
number than in any other one single field which is 
touched by corporation education activity .^^ The depart- 
ment stores of New York City alone employ over 28,000 
sales-people.^^j So important has the training of sales- 
people become that there have been formed a Department 

»Ref. 27, pp. 476 et seq. 

••Bureau of Salesmanship Research, Carnegie Institute of Technology, 
Pittsburgh, Penn. See Ref. 27, p. 364, also Printers' Ink, April 6th, 1916. 
"Thirteenth U. S. Census Report, 1910, Vol. IV, p. 93. 
•^Miss Beulah Kennard, Sec. No. 49, LaFayette St., New York City. 



Trade and Corporation Schools 35 

Store Educational Association32 in New York City, a 
Union School of Salesmanship in Boston, and numerous 
other agencies have taken up the study of salesmanship 
and the training of sales-people. 

Few, if any, of the department stores have had their 
training work organized long enough to have any avail- 
able literature outlining their curricula. Many of them, 
however, are pursuing at least a part of the work indi- 
cated in the following outline taken from the bulletin on 
the New York Department Store Educational Associa- 
tion: 

1. Stock 

a) classification in departments, 

b) materials and qualities, 

c) arrangement and care, 

d) color, form, and style, 

2. Salesmanship 

a) types of customers, 

b) approaching a customer, 

c) closing the sale, 

d) demonstration sales for discussion, 

3. Commercial ethics 

a) relation of employees to the store, 

b) relation of employees to each other, 

c) relation of the store to its customers, 

4. System 

a) rapid calculation, 

b) business arithmetic, 

c) business English. 

4. Office Work Schools 

Office-work schools undertake to train employees in 
practically all of the mechanical phases of office practice, 
and the extent of the work covered in different schools 
varies from instruction in the simplest forms of book- 



36 Study op Corporation Schools 

keeping to a thorough training in accounting, filing, in- 
dexing, correspondence, stenography, typing, multi- 
graphing, dictaphone operating, and general office effi- 
ciency. 

The fact that instruction in office work varies from a 
minimum of practically zero to a complete training cover- 
ing a year or more has made it practically impossible to 
classify such schools or to secure any adequate data as 
to their number. 

5. Schools for Unskilled Labor 

The fifth phase of corporate educational activity is 
directed toward the unskilled laborer. This may take 
the form of classes in common-school subjects or, what is 
perhaps of greater importance, the teaching of English 
to foreigners. 

It has been impossible to secure statistics as to the 
number of firms conducting such work, or as to the num- 
ber of adult employees who are enrolled in school work, 
but some notion of the importance of this work may be 
gained from the fact that one firm, the American Bridge 
Company at Ambridge, Pennsylvania, has an enrollment 
of 125 adult foreigners at a single plant.*^ The Ford 
Motor Company reports 2,700 foreigners in the Ford 
English SchooF* and other companies^^ report equally 
important work of this character. What company offi- , 
cials maintaining these schools think of this work is sum- J 
marized in Chapter IV. 

6. Trade Apprentice Schools 

The purpose of the trade apprentice school is to 
impart to each apprentice the mastery of a skilled trade. 

"Ref. 27, p. 748. 

"Ref. 36. 

»Ref. 27, p. 197, pp. 746 et. 9eq. 



Trade and Corporation Schools 37 

These schools touch a much larger number of employees 
than any other type of corporation school, and are there- 
fore doubtless the most important. 

Apprentices are accepted usually at ages sixteen to 
twenty, and a legal indenture of apprenticeship is drawn 
up, which sets forth the length of the apprenticeship, the 
wages to be paid, and the details of the agreement. The 
great diversity of these agreements makes it difficult to 
characterize any considerable number of them. The in- 
denture used by the Packard Motor Car Company speci- 
fies: 

a) the name of the trade to be taught ; 

b) a deposit of twenty-five dollars to be forfeited to 

the company if the apprentice fails to complete 
his apprenticeship ; 

c) the conditions upon which the agreement may be 

legally terminated ; 

d) a bonus of one hundred dollars to be paid by the 

company upon the satisfactory completion of 
the apprenticeship ; 

e) a probationary period of one hundred hours at the 

end of which, the applicant is either dismissed 
or formally accepted and a legal indenture ex- 
ecuted between the company and the appren- 
tice's parents or guardian; 

f) a three years' term of apprenticeship of 2,700 

working hours ; 

g) the rating of apprentices by foremen, upon a per- 

centage basis, those receiving a high rating se- 
curing thereby a time premium which may be 
counted as vacation or to reduce the term of 
apprenticeship ; 
h) a wage scale of sixteen cents per hour for the first 
six months, and an increase of two cents per 
hour at the beginning of each succeeding six 
months ; 



38 Study of Corporation Schools 

i) a decrease in the term of apprenticeship at the op- 
tion of the company in case the apprentice is a 
graduate of the Detroit high school. 

Many companies in training their apprentices and 
other employees not regularly apprenticed, instead of un- 
dertaking to give them the academic and technical part 
of the training, enter into a cooperative agreement with 
public or private schools to give this training, while the 
practical part of the training is given in the shop under 
actual shop conditions. The importance of this coopera- 
tive movement and its bearing upon the solution of the 
problem of vocational education is discussed in Chap- 
ter X. 

The reports as to the number of students in corpora- 
tion schools do not give definite information as to the 
classification of students. In 1916, the Codification Com- 
mittee of the National Association of Corporation Schools 
(See Advance Report of this Committee) collected sta- 
tistics from forty-seven member-companies showing a 
total of approximately 12,000 students in all kinds of 
schools maintained by these member-companies. The 
Bulletin of the National Association of Corporation 
Schools— (March 17th, 1916, p. 10)— gives a total of 
approximately 30,000 students in corporation schools 
maintained by member-companies. In the opinion of the 
writer, the schools maintained by member-companies of 
the National Association of Corporation Schools number 
approximately half the entire number of corporation 
schools in the United States, so that according to this esti- 
mate there are about 60,000 students in all corporation 
schools in the United States. 

The data collected by the writer (see Chapter IV) 
shov/ that less than 1.000 of these students are college 
men or technically trained men, from Vv^hich we conclude 
that a large proportion of these 60.000 workers are in the 
Bchools for retail sales-people or in the trade apprentice 
schools. 



Efficiency 39 



PART II 
THE EFFICIENCY OF CORPORATION SCHOOLS 

Chapter IV 

The Efficiency of the Corporation School as Tested 
BY Business Concerns Which Maintain Them 

We now come to an examination of the corporation 
school in the light of the aims of such schools as set forth 
by the National Association of Corporation Schools. 
These aims are:^ first, "to develop to the limit the effi- 
ciency of the individual employee; and second, to in- 
crease industrial efficiency in, general. ' ' 

In this chapter we set forth the results of our investi- 
gation of the efficiency of corporation schools as deter- 
mined by such standards as have been set up by business 
concerns themselves. 

In Chapter II reference was made to the high state 
of development of craftmanship under the craft-gild ap- 
prenticeship system, and the origin of the corporation 
school was found in the decadence of that system. 

It would be highly desirable to compare the efficiency 
of the present system with that of the system which it 
has displaced but such a comparison would be manifestly 
misleading if not impossible. The social and industrial 
conditions which were dominant factors in the older sys- 
tem have undergone an almost complete transformation, 
and the present system of apprenticeship is affected by 
many new factors quite lacking under the old system. 
Among these new factors are a wide-spread general edu- 
cation, and the many opportunities for special technical 

*Chap. HI. 



40 Study op Corporation Schools 

training, a great increase in the number of trades and 
professions, and entirely different methods of manufac- 
turing owing to the almost universal use of power ma- 
chinery. Any conclusions, therefore, which might be 
based upon such a comparison would be almost valueless, 
not only on account of widely different conditions but 
also because of an almost complete lack of data for com- 
parison. 

Business concerns have assumed the responsibility for 
the training of their apprentices not, as a rule, from phil- 
anthropic or humanitarian motives, but for business rea- 
sons, though one of the leaders in corporation school work 
says that ''It is a movement to introduce the human ele- 
ment into industry. "2 This recognition of the human 
element is becoming increasingly common, especially in 
those firms which have organized training departments. 
The improved conditions cited, though they may be cred- 
ited largely to the training departments, are due partly 
to recent legislation requiring better working conditions, 
and the installation of safety appliances.^ 

The warrant, however, for a training department 
must still be found in purely business reasons which ap- 
peal to stock holders, and directors whose duty it is to 
produce dividends. These reasons are five in number: 
first, an inadequate supply of young employees to meet 
the demand of developing industry; second, a lack of 
highly skilled or technically trained men qualified for 
promotion ; third, a demand for a higher grade of com- 
mercial products than can be produced by unskilled 
labor; fourth, a too frequent turn-over of labor; and 
fifth, a very considerable annual expense through waste 
of material and through accidents resulting from the 
carelessness or ignorance of untrained operatives. 

The evidence of improvement in efficiency on these 

'Ret. 34, p. 12. 
'Ref. 33, pp. 57-58. 



EmciENCY 41 

five points is of two kinds : first, the almost unanimous 
opinion of the officials of the firms which maintain these 
schools ; and second, extracts from the records of a large 
number of these concerns. 

In the writer's correspondence with company offi- 
cials and corporation school directors, the almost uni- 
versal tenor is to the effect that their schools supply 
these deficiencies and produce these results. Personal 
interviews with officials and company employees rein- 
force this evidence. 

The strongest objective evidence of the efficiency of 
these schools from the company 's standpoint, lies in their 
rapid multiplication in recent years. The report of the 
first annual convention of the National Association of 
Corporation Schools^ shows that but five corporation 
schools had been established before 1905, while the fourth 
annual report,^ shows that this number had grown to 201 
apprenticeship schools. Further evidence is in the fact 
that the writer has been unable to learn of the discon- 
tinuance of any of these schools except in a few cases 
where cooperative relations have been established with 
public or other educational agencies.^ One authority*^ 
reports six of 112 schools discontinued, but he fails to 
state the reasons for their discontinuance. 

In but a single case has a company official reported 
the apprentice school as unsatisfactory^ and the reason 
for that failure was, to be found in the unfavorable atti- 
tude of the older employees toward the apprentices. 

The fact that the older apprenticeship schools con- 
tinue to exist and that new schools are multiplying rap- 
idly is strong evidence that they are accomplishing the 
purposes for which they are established. 

*Ref. 31, p. 120. 

"Ref. 27, pp. 164 et. seq. 

•Ref. 18, pp. 282, 289, 294, 301. 

''Industrial Education in Cincinnati, p. 4. Also Ref. 38, p. 199. 

•See Chap. III. Type B. 



42 Study of Corporation Schools 

1. TJie development of trained workers 

The number of applications for apprenticeships varies 
with business conditions, and business conditions of the 
past few years have developed a great demand for work- 
ers. The evidence gained by the writer's correspondence 
and consultation with company officials supports the 
statement that the corporation school, in a great measure, 
meets this demand. There are approximately 60,000 stu- 
dent-apprentices in the corporation schools of the United 
States and this number constitutes a constant source of 
supply of trained workers.^ 

2. The development of managerial talent 

The development of managerial talent is another aim 
set up by business men. Here, too, the evidence is in 
favor of the corporation school. ^^ The Chaix Printing 
Company of Paris, France, which operates the oldest 
corporation school, reported in 1902,1^ that of the 1,200 
employees of the company, including many of the fore- 
men, 250 were graduates of the apprentice school. Mr. 
Norman Colyer, of the Southern P'acific Railroad Com- 
pany, reports that, of 68 important promotions, 18 per 
cent were given to graduates of the special training 
course, 12 thus giving 18 per cent of the better positions 
to a small fraction of one per cent of the employees of the 
company. 

The Winchester Repeating Arms Company, reports^^ 
that a large number of their apprenticeship graduates 
are now company foremen. The Pennsylvania Railroad 
Company school is credited with being ' ' a most valuable 
selective medium for drawing men into official work.*'^* 

•Ref. 27, p. 325 et acq. 

"Ref. 16, p. 386. 

"Ref. 16, p. 857. 

"See bulletin Students' Course, S. P. R. R. Co. 

"Ref. 19, p. 192. 

"Natl. Assn. Corp. Schools, Bulletin June, 1914. 



Efficiency 43 

Another report states that 65 per cent of the executives 
of the company come up through the apprenticeship 
school. 

The development of foremen and company executives 
is one of the functions of the special training school de- 
scribed in Chapter III. Here a distinct type of appren- 
tice is sought and only men who have had some technical 
training, and in most cases a complete technical training, 
are sought for these courses. Many of the companies 
which maintain such courses find it necessary every year 
to visit the universities and technical schools, in compe- 
tition with other concerns, to seek the services of desirable 
new executive material in the graduating classes. 

During the months of January and February, 1917, 
in reply to a questionnaire sent to all the member com- 
panies of the National Association of Corporation 
Schools, the writer collected data from twenty firms 
which maintain special training schools. The question- 
naire asked, among other things, the characteristic fea- 
tures of the special training courses offered and the ap- 
proximate number of technical men employed each year. 
These twenty firms reported a maximal annual demand 
in their training departments for a total of 887 college 
graduates and men with technical training or experience. 
These men are selected with great care and they are 
usually given such special training in the business of the 
company and in practical engineering as will fit them for 
important technical and managerial positions. 

Some of these special training schools have been in 
operation for twenty-five years and the writer has not 
had information of the discontinuance of a single school 
through a failure to accomplish this end. The persist- 
ence of these schools is strong evidence that they accom- 
plish the second end for which they are established by 
developing men for managerial positions. 



44 Study of Corporation Schools 

3. Improvement in quality of output 

The third criterion applied by business men to their 
apprenticeship schools is the improvement in the quality 
of the work done. Unfortunately, here few data are 
available, though all company officials report, so far as 
reports are available, that one of the noticeable outcomes 
of their training departments is the improved quality 
of the work. One firm reports a reduction of unit office 
cost per business transaction, from $1.16 to $.57 in three 
years, because of better trained office help, making a 
total saving to the company of $45,000. Another firm 
handled 11,247 more orders during one year, with four- 
teen fewer employees, all on account of greater efficiency 
as a result of training. ^^ A representative of a large rail- 
road company reported that through their system of 
training men, his company had made more progress in 
four years than in the preceding twenty-five years when 
dependence was upon other means of getting trained 
men.i^ 

4. Decrease in tJie turn-over of labor 

The fourth test applied by business concerns to cor- 
poration school efficiency relates to their effect upon the 
turn-over of labor. 

It is not in order in this study to examine into the 
details of the causes which affect the tenure of employees. 
This has been done by other writers. ^^ It is essential here 
to report only the bearing which corporation schools have 
on the question. 

The manager of one large department store stated 
that his firm could not interest itself in the training of 
sales-people because of a turn of labor five times a year, 
and a training department would simply mean the train- 

«Ref. 19, p. 650. 
"Ref. 19, p. 220. 
i^Ref. 19, p. 677. 



Efficiency 45 

ing of people for other stores. Most company officials 
interviewed show a somewhat broader spirit, and where 
schools have been in existence long enough, the officials 
are almost unanimous in reporting an increase in the 
tenure of employees, and they credit this improvement 
to the corporation school. 

This credit, however, cannot be given wholly to the 
training department, for many concerns, simultaneously 
with the installation of training departments, have in- 
stalled welfare work, one of the chief functions of which 
is to decrease the turn-over of labor. ^^ 

Extracts from the reports in the hands of the writer, 
on the lengthened tenure of employees follow : 

Mr. L. Atherton, director of apprentices at the plant 
of Swift and Company, reports that at the end of six- 
teen months the average tenure of the boys in his depart- 
ment has been increased from 3.5 to 8.5 months. Of 395 
boys hired during three years, 192 were at the end of 
that time still in the employ of the company.!^ 

Mr. Townley, assistant superintendent of the J. L. 
Hudson Department Store Company, of Detroit, reported 
a ''very marked improvement" in the turn of labor, and 
he credited the improvement, in part at least, to the edu- 
cational department. 

The Cadillac Company, of Detroit, graduated a total 
of 144 apprentices from their training courses in 6 years, 
of whom 63 were still with the company at the end of that 
period, while 36 were in the automobile service of other 
companies. 

The Denver Gas and Electric Company has since the 
installation of its student training course, taken on 145 
men, 116 of whom — or 67 per cent — are still with the 
company. 

The Denison Manufacturing Company reports that it 

"Ref. 19, p. 721. 
"Ref. 19, p. 642. 



46 Study of Corporation Schools 

costs from $50 to $75 to train a new: worker, and that it 
has saved approximately $25,000 in 4 years by reducing 
the turn-over of labor from 68 per cent in 1911 to 28 per 
cent in 1915, through proper training and supervision of 
employees. 2<^ 

The General Electric Company is reported as. spend- 
ing $831,000 in hiring and discharging annually over 
22,000 employees.2i The purpose of the training and 
welfare work of this company is to reduce this enormous 
expense. 

Another company reported 2,649 college men taken 
into its special training course during the past 10 years 
and 55 per cent of those taken during the past 7 years 
still with the company.22 

The Winchester Repeating Arms Company reported 
that about 90 per cent of the apprenticeship graduates 
remain permanently with the company and that several 
of these graduates are now f oremen.^^ 

The Southern Pacific Railroad Company report shows 
9 graduates of their student course still in the employ of 
the company, with an average term of service to date, of 
8 years, and 3 months. 2* 

The Burroughs Adding Machine Company shows 
after 8 years of experience that, with 20 apprentices at 
all times, 25 per cent of them remain permanently with 
the company.25 

The most complete statement available contains data 
for 1913, from 33 companies, all but 3 of which have 
established schools since 1905 :^^ 

Total number of trade apprentices 7,420 

Total number of graduates 1,978 

Total number still in the employ of the company where training 

was received 1,854 

Total number in executive positions 129 

soRef. 19, pp. 667, 668. 

^New York Evening World, Nov. 21, 1916. 

"Ref. 19, p. 196. 

"•Ref. 19, p. 192. 

**Norman Colyer, Southern Pacific R. R. Bulletin, Training Courte. 

*Natl. Assn. Corp. Schools, Bulletin, June, 1914. 

"•Ref. 31, p. 120. 



Efpiciency 47 

This table shows that 93 per cent of the graduates 
remain with the company where their training was re- 
ceived. 

These figures for corporation schools compare very 
favorably with the following report of the persistence in 
service of the electrical engineering graduates of Purdue 
University. This report covers the period from 1890 to 
1915, during which time there were 1,081 graduates in 
electrical engineering. It shows the present occupation 
so far as obtainable of all these graduates. ^^ 

Present occupation Number of men Per cent of 

total 

Manufacturing 350 32.2 

Power plants 131 12 

Railroad 66 6.1 

Communication 67 6.2 

Miscellaneous 473 43.5 

1,081 100 

The Miscellaneous group is further subdivided as fol- 
lows: 

Present occupation Number of men Per cent of 

t total 

Public Service companies 26 2.8 

Teaching 58 6.8 

Non-electric 60 6.6 

Non-engineering 100 9.2 

Miscellaneous 117 10.8 

Not accounted for 113 10.4 

478 100. 

If we may assume that the above figures from cor- 
poration schools and from this technical school are fairly 
representative of the two types of schools, we are war- 
ranted in the conclusion that men trained in corporation 
schools show a greater tendency to persist in the kind 
of work for which they were trained than graduates of 
other technical schools. 

"Ewing, D. D. Engineering Education, Lancaster Penna., Feb., 1917. 



48 Study of Corporation Schools 

5. Reduction in waste and in number of accidents 

The fifth end attained by the companies which have 
installed training departments is a reduction in the waste 
of materials and a decrease in a much more serious waste, 
that of human health and human life as the result of 
accidents. 

It is not possible to credit the corporation school with 
all that has been accomplished in this direction, though 
company officials agree that the corporation school has 
been a very important contributor to this improvement. 
The fact that in many concerns the welfare work and the 
training work are carried on by the same department 
and by the same officials, makes it quite impossible to de- 
termine how much of this improvement is the result of 
the educational department. 

Safety and health have become the slogan of a very 
wide-spread propaganda, even more wide-spread than the 
corporation-school movement. A large part of the agi- 
tation for safety and health has been crystallized into the 
National Safety Council, an organization of nation-wide 
scope which has undertaken to coordinate and unite the 
welfare work which is now a part of practically every 
modern up-to-date corporation. ^^ 

' ' Fewer accidents and longer terms of service invari- 
ably result from medical attendance, physical examina- 
tions, * safety first* advice, sanitary lunch rooms and 
toilet rooms, and sanitary heat and light. ' '^9 it requires 
no argument to show that whatever makes an employee 
more healthful, more comfortable, and more intelligent 
will make him a more profitable worker, will increase 
his term of service and will reduce his number of acci- 
dents.^^ 

One of the most fruitful sources of accidents is the 
inability of foreigners to understand English. 

»Ref. 34. 

»Ref. 19, p. 684 and 800. 

*>Ref. 27, p. 311 



Efficiency 49 

This fact is recognized by all employers of large num- 
bers of foreigners, and the teaching of ' ' English for For- 
eigners "^^ is one of the most important forms of corpor- 
ation school work. This work is being fostered by :^^ the 
National Association of Maniifacturers,^^ the National 
Association of Corporation Schools, the National Educa- 
tion Association, the North American Civic League for 
Immigrants,^* the Young Men's Christian Association,^^ 
some from business and some from civic motives. 

Typical of the latter group of interests is the work 
of the United States Bureau of Education in the Division 
of Immigrant Education.^^ 

So far as information has come to the writer, the 
unanimous verdict of the firms conducting this work, is 
that it tends very strongly to reduce the number of ac- 
cidents. One company reports^*^ a decrease in 3 years of 
64 per cent in the number of accidents attributable to 
the safety department and to the teaching of English to 
foreigners. Other companies report^ ^ a decrease of from 
60 to 80 per cent in the number of accidents and they at- 
tribute the improvement to the same sources. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The data cited in this chapter and the reports from 
individual companies do not, by any means, exhaust the 
information at hand or available, bearing upon the five 
points in question. These data have been selected because 
they are typical of the large amount of evidence which 
has been examined. The writer believes that this evi- 



"Ref. 87 . 

""Ref. 34, pp. 515, 521, 723, 725, 747, 753; Ref. 35; Ref. 27, pp. 
339-42. 

"Headquarters No. 30 Church St., New York City. 

"'Hoadqiiarters No. 173 State Street, Boston, Mass. 

»Ref. 2, p. 363; Ref. 36. 

'*U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, Immigrant Education. 

"Ref. 87. 

'"Ref. 36, p. 33. 



50 Study of Cobporation Schools 

dence is sufficient to show that corporation schools ac- 
complish the ends for which they have been organized 
by supplying a more nearly adequate number of 
trained employees, by fitting men for promotion, by re- 
ducing the turn-over of labor, by improving the output, 
and by decreasing the number of accidents. 

One of the important items in the argument is the 
fact that practically no negative evidence on these points 
has been found. 

The corporation school stands the efficiency test which 
business concerns apply to it. In the following four 
chapters are given the results of the comparison of cor- 
poration schools with public secondary schools and tech- 
nical schools. ^ 



Instruction 51 



Chapter V 

Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as 

TO Instruction 

In this chapter are given the results of the compari- 
son of the corporation school with public secondary 
schools and technical schools in the matter of instruction. 

This study had scarcely been begun, when the writer 
repeatedly encountered the statement that one of the main 
points of superiority of corporation schools over other 
technical schools and public schools is a superior teaching 
force, and this claim, emanating both from corporation- 
school teachers themselves and corporation officials as 
well, has been kept continuously in mind as various 
schools of both types have been visited. 

There is something about a good teacher which all 
recognize as the distinctive mark of his ability, yet this 
something is so intangible as to elude isolation. Some 
call it personality, some sympathy, and some intuition. 
While we cannot accurately define it or isolate it, every 
supervisor and every student readily recognizes it in the 
true teacher. 

In addition to this essential personality, a successful 
corporation-school teacher should have had enough shop 
experience to enable him to handle any practical problem 
which is likely to arise. He must know more than the 
students do in order to hold their respect. Students ex- 
pect a teacher not only to know more than they them- 
selves, but to be a master of the subject he teaches. 

In order to meet the demand for well-qualified in- 
structors several of the larger corporations have estab- 
lished teacher-training courses for the purpose of giving 
to prospective teachers technical training, not only in 



52 Study op Corporation Schools 

class management, but also in the handling of subject- 
matter according to approved pedagogical principles. 
This movement is one of the most hopeful signs and it 
cannot fail to contribute to a more scientific technique of 
teaching. Among the organizations which are training 
corporation-school teachers are: the American Steel 
Company,^ the American Telephone and Telegraph Com- 
pany, ^ the Union School of Salesmanship, and the Na- 
tional Association of Corporation Schools in cooperation 
with the New York University. 2 This awakened con- 
sciousness on the part of corporation school adminis- 
trators toward the technique of teaching suggests that a 
comparison of the teaching in corporation schools with 
the teaching in public secondary schools and technical 
schools may be valuable. 

At the beginning of this study, copious notes were 
made on the teaching observed, but these were soon found 
to be inadequate for making a measurably accurate com- 
parison between the two groups of schools. The better 
to accomplish this end a score card was needed, adapted 
to the scoring of engineering teaching and such other sub- 
jects as are usually taught in corporation schools. 

A teacher's efficiency score card suitable for scoring 
the teaching in corporation schools should take into con- 
sideration those points which the efficiency engineer con- 
siders in investigating the efficiency of any business or 
manufacturing concern. Among these points are economy 
of time, economy of effort, and economy of materials. 
The writer has been permitted to make an adaptation of 
Professor Charles Hughes Johnston's Ten-Point Scale 
for this purpose.^ 

It was desired to have a score card which should not 
take into account the teacher's personality as a separate 

iRef. 27, pp. 325, 335-7. 

'New York University Bulletin, Dept. Store Education Courses, Jan. 
«, 1916. 

•Not yet published. 



Instruction 53 



TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD 

School Lesson Topic 

Teacher Observer 

Subject Date 

Length of Observation Time of day 



Ite ms Scored* (O ver) Score] P | F [Mj G | E | 

I. TECHNIQUE OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMEN T | | I I I I 

1 smoothness in classroom work for whole period 

2 mechanical skill and skillful use of de-vices 

3 economy of time and effort 

4 good physical and mental conditions 

5 good order, industry, — avoiding distractions 



II. RECITATION TECHNIQUE 



1 choice of methods — lecture, laboratory, quiz, ge- 

netic, textbook, problem, project, excursion 

2 memory drill and reviews 

3 consideration for maturity of students 

4 use of local and illustrative material 



III. DEFINITENESS OF AIM | | | | | | 

1 logical and pedagogical organization 

2 elimination of irrelevant materials 
3 clarity of aim 

4 attainment of aim 



IV. ASSIGNMENT OF NEXT LESSON | | | | | | 

1 relating the present lesson to the next 

2 suggestions of methods of attack and study 

3 amount of assignment 

4 deflniteness of assignment. 



V. PRACTICAL AND COMMON SENSE | | | | | j 

1 relating theory to practice 

2 consideration of economic and cost factors 

3 prevalence of common sense judgments 

4 evidence of common sense atmosphere 



VI. MENTAL DISCIPLINE 

1 ability to realize cause and effect 

2 ability to make scientific inferences 

3 ability to generalize and conceptualize 

4 ability to think logically 



VII. RESPONSIVENESS OP CLASS | | | | | | 

1 effective and adequate response 

2 spontaneous response 

3 responses from entire class 

4 -rronp coi pcraMon nnd responsibility 

Vill. CLASS^ATTITUDE TOWARD"LEARNiNG | | | | | | 

1 respect for the educative process 

2 students blase, bored, superficial, interested 

"t i-oopc'intivn botwocii toiu'lier and students 

4 sympathetic relations of teacher and students 

IX. ^BREADTH OF VIEW | | | | | | 

1 use of source material 

2 use of supplementary materials 

8 vub«ervience to textbook or syllabus 
4 hospitality toward students' contributions 
X^ ^DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE | | | | | | 

1 good form, voice and language in classroom 

2 appreciation of thoroughness of knowledge 
8 refinement in manner, speech and thought 
4 appreciation of form vs. mere knowledge 



54 Study of. Corporation Schools 

item to be scored, not that personality* is an unimportant 
f a ctor in any teacher 's success, but it has seemed prefer- 
able so to organize the score card to be used that the scor- 
ing of the items in it, will take into account, the teacher's 
personality as it affects the item in question. 

On the preceding page is shown the writer's adapta- 
tion of Professor Johnston's Ten-Point Scale. 

The back of the Score Card is reproduced below : 

TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD 

Explanations and directions for scoring a teacher's classroom efficiency. 
Bead these instructions carefully. 

1. The aim of this score card is to enable teachers and supervisors 

to conpernte inteH'gently in improving teaching by scoring important items 
in the process. 

2. Use the subtopics as the basis of your judgment, but score main 
points only. The naming of specific subtopics need not prevent the con- 
sideration of others not named but presumably equally important. 

3. Score points as they come in evidence, not necessarily in the order 
printed. 

4. Do not score any point upon which there is insufficient evidence. 

5. The observer should focus attention not upon teacher, or upon 
pnpils -n isolat'ori hnt upon the entire cooperative classroom activity, and 
should also keep in mind the factors over which the teacher has no con- 
trol, such as former classroom practice and local school and community 
prejudices. This suggestion applies specially to items, I, II, VII, VIII, 
and X. 

6. The observer and the teacher should have a thorough understand- 
ing of the score card and its purpose before a class is visited, and no final 
judgment shonkl be formed until at least three diflPerent scores have been 
made. If possible these visits should include the time when some definite 
larger unit of instruction is being developed. A visit should include at 
least half of a recitation period and should include either the beginning 
or the end of the period. 

7. The rankings: P. P. M. G. and E. may be understood to repre- 
sent approximately equal steps between the poorest teaching likely to be 
found and the best possible — say, roughly equivalent to rankings of 1, 3, 6, 
7, 9, plus or minus on a scale of ten. 



*School Review Monograph. No. VI. 



Instruction 55 

The score card is not a grading card nor a measuring- 
stick or scale. The fundamental element of a scale is a 
series of approximately equal steps between a lower point 
of zero and an upper point of approximate perfection. 
No such claim is made for this score card, nor is it as- 
sumed that the ten items of this score card are of even 
approximately equal importance. They are all im- 
portant, but no attempt has been made to establish a rank- 
order nor any weighting of the ten items. 

The line drawn through the scores entered for the va- 
rious items therefore cannot in any sense be considered 
the graph of an equation representing a relation between 
the various items for there are no scaled coordinates and 
no coordinate axes. 

Each of the ten items of the score card is subdivided 
into sub-topics, though it is not intended that each of 
these sub-topics shall be scored separately; they are 
given simply as indicative of what the observer ought to 
look for, and these items are not intended to preclude 
the consideration of others not mentioned but pertinent 
and equally important. 

In order to facilitate the use of the Teachers' Effi- 
ciency Score Card, and further, in order fully to ac- 
quaint any who may find occasion to use it in the scoring 
of teaching, with the import of the various items, the fol- 
lowing fuller discussion of the ten items is presented: 

1. TECHNIQUE OF CLASSROOM MANAGE- 
MENT involves the more or less mechanical phases of 
the entire classroom procedure, including mechanical 
skill in the selection of, and in the adjustment and use of 
classroom devices, such as maps, globes, apparatus, and 
machinery ; skill in securing economy of time and effort 
in making assignments, in taking the class roll, in pass- 
ing to and from seats; maintaining good physical con- 
ditions as to temperature, ventilation, and humidity; 



56 Study of Corporation Schools 

and good order, a spirit of industry, and freedom from 
oistT*?! rations 

2. RECITATION TECHNIQUE involves : the means 
and methods employed in making the real vital contact 
between the students and the subject matter ; the adapta- 
tion of the methods and materials to the maturity of 
the students; skill in the use of illustrative materials; 
and a proper emphasis upon reviews and drills. 

3. DEFINITENESS OF AIM involves: considera- 
tion for proper logical and pedagogical presentation of 
materials ; an emphasis upon essential points ; the subor- 
dination of irrelevant matter so as to make the central 
aim of the recitation clear, and its attainment certain. 

4. ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS requires : a reason- 
able and a definite assignment ; a proper relating of the 
present lesson to the next and suggestion of methods of 
attacking and of studying the new lesson. 

5. PRACTICAL AND COMMON SENSE in a class- 
room is evidenced : by a due relating of theory to practice ; 
by a due consideration for economic and cost factors 
wherever these factors are present; by a prevalence of 
common sense judgments; and by a common sense at- 
mosphere. 

6. MENTAL DISCIPLINE is evidenced in part by 
the ability : to realize cause and effect ; to make scientific 
inferences ; to make proper generalizations, and to form 
right concepts ; and to think logically. 

7. RESPONSIVENESS OF CLASS is evidence of 
good instruction, in proportion as responses are effective, 
adequate, spontaneous and general; and to the degree 
that there is present a group cooperation and a sense of 
group responsibility. 

8. CLASS ATTITUDE TOWARD LEARNING is 
evidenced by the extent to which there is present a respect 
for the educative process ; a blase, bored, superficial, or 
interested attitude on the part of students ; and a helpful 



Instruction 57 

cooperative and sympathetic relation between teacher and 
pupils. 

9. BREADTH OF VIEW is evidenced by the use of 
source and supplementary materials, by freedom from 
subservience to textbooks and syllabi, and by the consid- 
eration given to pupils' opinions and contributions. 

10. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE is evidenced 
by the presence of good form, good voice, and language ; 
by appreciation shown for thoroughness of knowledge; 
by refinement in manner, speech, and thought; and by 
appreciation of good form rather than knowledge. 

Some of these items are in evidence in practically 
every classroom recitation, while others are frequently 
lacking. Some are easy to score, while others are rather 
intangible. Those relatively easy to score are Items I, II, 
III, IV and VII, while under the latter category fall 
Items V, VI, VIII, IX, and X. The importance of these 
more elusive outcomes will scarcely be questioned but 
evidence of their presence is sometimes difficult to detect. 
The suggestion is made in the instructions for scoring 
that no score be made for any item in case of insufficient 
evidence. It may frequently happen too, that such items 
as the ''Assignment of Lesson", which! is relatively easy 
to score may not be in evidence at all, owing to the fact 
that the assignment may have been made in advance. In 
such a case the proper procedure is not to score that 
item. 

Shortly after the beginning of this study, the faculty 
of the Department of Civil Engineering of the University 
of Illinois became interested in the pedagogical phase of 
engineering teaching to the extent that the writer was 
invited to make a survey of their teaching. In compliance 
with this request the writer made systematic visitations 
to the classes of the department during the months of 
November and December, 1916. 

This invitation afforded the desired opportunity of 



58 Study or Corporation Schools 

making a systematic comparison of the teaching of cor- 
poration schools with that of a public technical school, 
and hastened the completion of the Teachers* Efficiency 
Score Card described above. 

According to Rule 6 for the use of the score card, a 
thorough understanding was reached with the instructors 
as to the purpose and the process of the scoring, and each 
instructor's classes, as far as possible, were visited at 
least three times. In order not to prejudice later scoring, 
as soon as a score was made, it was put aside and not re- 
ferred to again until all the scoring was completed. After 
three scores had been made for each instructor in the de- 
partment, an average score was made for each instructor 
by taking a mean of the three rankings in each of the 
ten items. 

The averaging of the several scores for an instructor 
was done by the ordinary arithmetical process, giving the 
various scores, instead of the letters the arithmetical val- 
ues : 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 suggested in Eule 7, on the back 
of the card. In the same manner the average score on 
any one item for all the instructors in the department 
was obtained. 

By treating each item in the same manner and by 
drawing a line through these mean scores on the various 
items, each instructor's average ''graph" was obtained; 
and by a similar averaging of all ten scores for the sev- 
eral instructors, the department average on all the ten 
items was obtained. 

After all the scoring was done and the average 
''graphs" were drawn, a report was submitted to the 
faculty of the department at their weekly conference and 
the value of the survey and the scoring was freely dis- 
cussed. The writer maintained for the individual average 
scores, and for the department average scores, that they 
were diagnostic only. He did not hold that they measured 
on a per cent scale, the exact amount of any item, but 



Instruction 59 

lie did maintain that each instructor ^s average score was 
a fairly accurate diagnosis of that instructor's classroom 
efficiency. He further maintained that the low point on 
the department average score — Responsiveness of Class, 
— ^was the real low point in the instruction in the depart- 
ment. This conclusion the writer believes agrees substan- 
tially with the combined judgment of the faculty of the 
department. 

Thus the writer, whose knowledge of civil engineering 
is limited to mathematical theory, but who has given a 
good deal of attention to the technique of teaching and of 
classroom management, has been able by means of the 
Teachers' Efficiency Score Card, to diagnose with a fair 
degree of precision the instruction of the department. 
The usefulness and reliability of the score card has been 
further tested by the aid of six graduate students of the 
University of Illinois. These students cooperated with 
the writer in scoring, each quite independently, the same 
recitation. Five separate recitations were scored in dif- 
ferent departments of the University of Illinois. These 
scores are tabulated below : 

TABLE IV. 

1. Items I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 

Student A. 7957751-7- 
Student B. 7 9 75733575 

i ~i i i I 

2. Items I II III IV V 
Student A. 3 3 3 13 
Student C. 3 7 3 1 - 

2 - 

«. Items I II III IV V 

Student A. 7 9 7-7 

__ Student B. 9 9 7 - 9 

10 - 1 

4. Items I II III IV V 
Student A. 7 7 5 3 7 

St uden t D. 5 7 5_ 1 5 

1 1 1 



VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


3 


5 


7 


5 


8 


9 


9 


9 
1 


1 

2 


7 


3 


2 


2 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


7 


5 


7 


7 


7 


7 


9 
2 


9 
1 


9 


7 





1 





VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


5 


8 


7 


9 


_ 


3 


7 


7 


7 


7 


1 


2 





1 


_ 



60 Study of Corporation Schools 



Items I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 

Student A. 9975-53397 

Student B. 9975753375 

Student E. 9995975797 



0010111211 

In summarizing these scores ' ' " indicates a perfect 
agreement between observers on that item; "V indi- 
cates a displacement (disagreement) of one step on the 
score card, the steps being 1-3-5-7-9; *'2" indicates a 
displacement of two steps. ' ' Displacement ' ' may be read 
as the difference between the highest and the lowest score 
on any item. 

In cases where the observer made no entry for any 
item, it has seemed best to take no account of that item 
rather than to call the blank a score of zero, which would 
be obviously misleading. (See Rule 4.) 

In the five scores there are therefore, out of a possible 
fifty, in each of the following cases : 

(a) 17 exact agreement of the observers, 

(b) 38 displacements of one step or less, counting 

'^O's'' 

(c) 7 displacements of two steps, and only 

(d) 1 displacement of more than two steps. 

In the case of '^a", if the number of observers had 
been taken into account instead of the number of 
items, the number of exact agreements is shown to be 29, 
out of a possible 70, which makes an even stronger show- 
ing, the ratios being 29/70 or 41.4 per cent against 17/50 
or 29.4 per cent by the former method. 

The agreement of these results of the scoring of the 
same classroom exercise by different observers confirms 
the belief that the Teachers' Efficiency Score Card is a 
valuable aid in focusing attention upon the essential 
points of good classroom procedure and in scoring that 
procedure. 

The usefulness of the score card depends largely upon 
two factors: first, a reasonably accurate knowledge of 



Instruction 61 

what is meant by the ten items of the score card ; and sec- 
ond, a sufficient knowledge of correct classroom procedure 
to recognize its presence or absence as shown by these 
items and to judge its quality. 

The judging and scoring of these items was not an easy 
matter. The writer usually proceeded by checking either 
with '*-|-'' or '' — " the various sub-topics as they came 
into evidence to indicate either ''good" or ''bad" on that 
point ; and frequently by notations in case any topic was 
conspicuously present or absent, or in case of other points 
not mentioned in the card but pertinent and im- 
portant. The purpose of this procedure was to develop 
a general idea of the extent to which the items were in 
evidence. The decision as to whether any item should be 
scored P, F, M, G, or B was determined in the following 
manner: if an item was in evidence in such a manner 
that it represented undoubtedly very bad practice, or an 
evident ignorance of, or disregard for good procedure, 
that item has been scored either ' ' p " or " F " according 
to the degree of badness ; if an item was in evidence in 
such a manner as to show that good practice in that par- 
ticular was carefully considered or habitual, that item 
was scored either "E" or "G" according to the degree 
of excellence ; if the item in question was in evidence in 
such a manner as would likely to be most commonly ob- 
served, it was scored "M". 

In pursuing this study of corporation schools the 
Teachers' Efficiency Score Card has been used to com- 
pare the efficiency of the instruction observed in these 
schools with that observed in public secondary schools 
and technical schools. The scoring of corporation schools 
and of public and private schools has necessarily not been 
done with such a degree of intensiveness as was possible 
in the civil engineering department of the University 
of Illinois. This is due to the fact that it has seldom 
been practicable to remain in any one school longer than 



62 



Study op Corporation Schools 



a half day, and in but few cases has it been possible to 
make duplicate scores for individual instructors. There 
is therefore a greater probability of error in the scores 
of corporation school teachers than in those described 
above. Table V shows the scores of 18 instructors in 
eight different corporation schools.^ 











TABLE V. 












Items 


I 


II 


in 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


vin 


IX 


X 


Teacher 1. 


7 


5 


7 


5 


5 


5 


3 


3 


3 


5 


2. 


3 


5 


5 


5 


7 


3 


5 


3 


3 


3 


3. 


5 


5 


7 


— 


7 


5 


6 


5 


3 


— 


4. 


5 


7 


7 


— 


9 


7 


7 


7 


3 


3 


5, 


5 


7 


5 


— 


5 


5 


7 


6 


1 


3 


6. 


1 


8 


3 


3 


7 


5 


3 


5 


7 


5 


7.* 8 


7 


6 


5 


8 


5 


4 


6 


6 


5 


8. 


7 


5 


7 


— 


3 


3 


7 


5 


1 


1 


9. 


5 


3 


3 


— 


5 


3 


1 


3 


3 


— 


10. 


3 


7 


7 


— 


5 


5 


5 


3 


3 


3 


11. 


5 


7 


7 


— 


5 


7 


— 


7 


3 


3 


12. 


5 


7 


5 


3 


7 


— 


3 


7 


3 


3 


13. 


7 


7 


7 


— 


7 


7 


5 


7 


5 


3 


14. 


7 


5 


7 


— 


7 


3 


7 


7 


3 


3 


15. 


7 


7 


7 


3 


5 


— 


7 


7 


— 


— 


16. 


3 


7 


5 


— 


5 


5 


5 


7 


3 


3 


17. 


5 


7 


5 


5 


5 


5 


3 


7 


3 


3 


18. 


3 


7 


7 


5 
3.8 


5 
6. 


5 


7 


7 
5. 


7 
3.5 


3 


Averages 


5. 


6. 


5.9 


5. 


5. 


8.3 


* (average of two 


scores) 

















Table VI shows 34 scores of 21 different teachers in 
7 public secondary schools and technical schools. ^ The 
first 23 scores are those made by 11 instructors in the De- 
partment of Civil Engineering of the University of Illi- 
nois, which are discussed above. 



^Schools of the following companies : Marshall Field and Co., Packard 
Motor Co., R. R. Donnelly Printing Co., J. L. Hudson Department Store, 
Ford Motor Co., Western Electric Co., Swift and Co. and Central Stations 
Institute. 

^A total of 39 scores were made but 4 of these were made in mixed 
and secondary classes in the Gary Schools, and one was discarded on ac< 
count of extraordinary conditions under which it was made. These schools 
include two departments of the Engineering College of the University of 
Illinois; two departments of Bradley Institute at Peoria, HI., and the High 
Schools at Springfield, 111., Detroit, Mich., (Cass Tech)., and the Froebel 
School at Gary, Ind. 











Instruction 










63 










TABLE 


i VI. 












Items 


I 


II 


Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


Teacher 1. 


7 


5 


3 


7 


5 


5 


3 . 


3 


9 


7 




7 


5 


7 


_ 


7 


5 


3 


3 


9 


— 


2. 


7 


7 


7 


— 


7 


5 


7 


7 


7 


7 




7 


7 


9 


7 


5 


5 


7 


7 


5 


— 


3. 


5 


7 


5 


7 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 




5 


9 


7 


9 


5 


5 


3 


5 


7 


6 


4. 


7 


7 


7 


7 


5 


5 


7 


7 


7 


5 




7 


7 


9 


7 


7 


6 


5 


7 


7 


— 


5. 


7 


7 


7 


— 


7 


5 


5 


7 


7 


7 




5 


7 


5 


5 


7 


— 


— 


3 


9 


7 


6. 


7 


7 


9 


_ 


5 


5 


5 


7 


7 


7 




7 


5 


7 


— 


7 


— 


5 


9 


8 


7 




7 


3 


3 


3 


5 


5 


5 


7 


3 


7 


7. 


5 


7 


7 


— 


5 


5 


7 


7 


7 


— 




5 


5 


7 


5 


5 


5 


5 


3 


5 


7 




7 


5 


7 


— 


5 


5 


3 


5 


5 


— 


8. 


3 


3 


7 


— 


7 


5 


1 


1 


7 


5 


9. 


3 


5 


5 


— 


5 


5 


3 


5 


7 


— 




7 


5 


7 


3 


7 


5 


3 


5 


5 


— 


10. 


3 


5 


.5 


3 


5 


5 


5 


7 


5 


3 




3 


7 


9 


— 


7 


7 


5 


_ 


5 


— 


11. 


7 


5 


7 


— 


7 


5 


3 


5 


5 


— 




9 


7 


9 


- 


7 


7 


7 


7 


5 


8 


C. E. Teach 






















ers' Av. 


6. 


6. 


6.7 


5.7 


6. ' 


5.+ 


4.6 


5.5 


6.1 


6.- 


Teacher 12. 


3 


7 


5 


3 


3 


3 


8 


3 


3 


8 


13. 


5 


3 


7 


— 


7 


— 


5 


7 


7 


~~ 


14. 


9 


7 


5 


— 


7 


3 


3 


7 


— 


m. 


15. 


9 


9 


9 


— 


9 


5 


5 


7 


7 


— 


16. 


7 


5 


5 


— 


9 


5 


6 


9 


9 


_ 


17. 


7 


8 


5 


— 


3 


8 


1 


6 


— 


8 


18. 


7 


9 


9 


— 


7 


5 


.5 


7 


— 


— 


18. 


7 


3 


7 


3 


7 


7 


1 


5 


— 


— 


19. 


7 


3 


3 


— 


5 


3 


1 


5 


— 


3 


20. 


5 


7 


7 


5 


5 


5 


3 


8 


8 


_ 


21. 


5 


7 


- 


- 


5 


- 


7 


- 


7 


- 


Average 21 






















Teachers 


6.1 


5.9 


6.6 


5.3 
Average) 


6. 


4.9 


4.3 


5.6 


6.1 


5.8 


Corporations School Teachers' 


3 




















TABLE V 














5. 


6. 


5.9 


3.8 


6. 


5. 


5. 


5. 


8.5 


8.8 



The ''graphs" of these two sets of averages are shown 
in Table VII. The average score of the public secondary 
school and technical school teachers is shown by the solid 
line, and that of corporation school teachers by the dotted 
line. 



64 



Study op Corporation Schools 



TABLE Vn. 
TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD 



Items Scored* (Over) 



TECHNIQUE OP CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
1. smoothness in class work for whole period 

2 mechanical skill and skillful use of devices 

3 economy of time and effort 

4 good physical and mental conditions 

5 good order, industry, — avoiding distractions 



II. RECITATION TECHNIQUE 

1 choice of method — ^lecture, laboratory, quiz, 
genetic, textbook, problem, project, excursion 

2 memory drill and reviews 

3 consideration for maturity of students 

4 use of local and illustrative material 



III. DEFINITENESS OF AIM 

1 logical and pedagogical organization 

2 elimination of irrelevant materials 

3 clarity of aim 

4 attainment of aim 



IV. ASSIGNMENT OF NEXT LESSON 

1 relating the present lesson to the next 

2 suggestions of method of attack and study 

3 amount of assignment 

4 definiteness of assignment 



V. PRACTICAL AND COMMON SENSE 

1 relating theory to practice 

2 consideration of economic and cost factors 

3 prevalence of common sense judgments 

4 evidence of common sense atmosphere 



VI. MENTAL DISCIPLINE 

1 ability to realize cause and effect 

2 ability to make scientific inferences 

3 ability to generalize and conceptualize 

4 ability to think logically 



VII. RESPONSIVENESS OF CLASS 

1 effective and adequate response 

2 spontaneous response 

3 responses from entire class 

4 group cooperation and responsibility 



•p r /n , &. e: 



.^-S- 



IZ 



m 



^ 



YE 



■ Ji ' 



m 



T^ 



VIII. CLASS ATTITUDE TOWARD LEARNING 

1 respect for the educative process 

2 students blase, bored, superficial, interested 

3 cooperation between teacher and students 

4 sympathetic relations of teacher and students 



M „ , f\ 



/ 



IX. BREADTH OF VIEW. 

1 use of source materials 

2 use^ of supplementary materials 

3 subservience to textbook or syllabus 

4 hospitality toward students' contributions 



W 



t 



I J » 



X. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE 

1 good form, voice and language in classroom 

2 appreciation of thoroughness of knowledge 

3 refinement in manner, speech and thought 

4 appreciation of form vs. mere knowledge 



Instruction 65 

In order to determine whether dependence can be 
placed upon these averages, the probable errors have been 
computed by the Pearson formula.^ In no case is the 
probable error more than .33 and in no case less than 
.20. From a statistical standpoint, therefore, the writer 
bases no conclusions upon these averages except such as 
differ by more than .66 or twice the largest probable 
error. This exception applies to Items I, III, IV, VII, 
IX, and X. 

•Conclusions 

The evidence of Tables V and VI counting only these 
items, warrants the conclusion that the teaching in pub- 
lic secondary schools and technical schools is superior 
to the teaching in corporation schools in Classroom Man- 
agement, Definiteness of Aim, Assignment of Lessons, 
Breadth of View, and Development of Culture ; and that 
corporation school teaching is superior in Responsive- 
ness of Class. The averages for the corporation schools 
are slightly larger, too, in Recitation Technique and in 
Mental Discipline, though the differences are too small 
to be statistically significant. 

The conclusions derived from the scoring of the teach- 
ing observed agrees substantially with the opinion which 
the writer has formed while visiting these schools, except 
on two points. The writer believes that the teaching in 
public secondary schools and technical schools is superior 
to that in corporation schools in Recitation Technique, 
and that the Class Attitude Toward Learning in corpora- 
tion schools is better than that in the other group of 
schools. 

The first four points of the score card are presumably 
those in which professional training would function. They 



"Thorndike, E. L. Mental and Social Measurementt, p. 188. 



66 Study of Corporation Schools 

are the items which are emphasized in the training of 
teachers. In three of these four items, the teaching in 
public secondary schools and technical schools shows 
superiority over that in corporation schools. In this con- 
dition, the writer finds a further warrant for a compari- 
son of the methods of teaching in these two groups of 
schools in the next chapter. 



Motivation of Work 67 



Chapter VI. 

Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as 
TO Motivation of Work 

In the inanimate world there is no possibility of mo- 
tion except as the result of some impelling force. In the 
animate world also, it is impossible to conceive of any 
motion or activity except as the result of some causal or 
motive force. In the physical world, force is defined in 
terms of its effect, — motion, and in the realm of the 
animate and the intelligent, a motive is defined as that 
situation which tends to produce activity. In discussing 
intelligent activity, the terms, motive and incentive, are 
usually treated as synonymous, or at least, very closely 
related. The selection and the application of motives in 
school work has given rise to a comparatively new word 
in pedagogical parlance, ''motivation." Motivation has 
to do with the bringing to bear upon a pupil, such mo- 
tives and incentives as will secure the desired activity, or 
produce an adequate reaction, and secure a proper atti- 
tude on the part of the pupil toward the work in hand.^ 

Professor John Dewey says,^ ''An educational aim 
must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs 
of the individual to be educated". "Education", he 
says, ' ' is that reorganization of experience which adds 
to the meaning of experience and which increases the 
ability to direct the course of subsequent experience." 
The best experience for any individual depends upon the 
intrinsic activities and needs of that individual, and the 
motives which will best produce these intrinsic activities 
and supply these needs will be the best motives for that 
individual. 



»Ref. 40, p. 126. 
'Ref. 40, p. 89. 



68 Study of Corporation Schools 

Return again to the figures of the physical world. 
The development, the conservation, and the application 
of power constitute the chief function of the efficiency 
engineer. The educational realm presents an analogous 
situation. The task of the teacher is the selection and 
right employment of incentives and motives. The needs 
of the pupil are important factors in determining which 
motives will be the most efficient in any case. 

Efficiency here is used in its technical sense, as the 
ratio between motive power and resulting activity. As 
stated above, that motive will be most powerful, and 
therefore most effective, which grows out of the felt needs 
of the pupil. 

Professor Dewey formulates this theory^ into what 
is called the problem situation. ^'A problem is that 
situation which arouses thinking and suggests something 
to do with something new, to relate it properly with 
former experience." This ''something to do" is an out- 
come which the pupil feels is worth while. His interest 
in the problem is this feeling of its worthwhileness, and 
this feeling of worthwhileness in a situation and its out- 
come is interest.^ 

Some writers measure the value of any school activity 
by the degree of interest which the pupil has in that 
activity. The fallacy here, grows out of the fact that in- 
terests originate in wants fully as frequently as in needs. 
Hence many interests do not contribute to the real ends 
of education. Their value all depends upon whether they 
originate in mere wants or in real needs. For example : 
a student may become so interested in athletics or in 
social pleasures as seriously to interfere with his studies 
and his real needs ; a man may become so interested in 
satisfying his uncontrolled intemperate appetite as 
wholly to neglect his business and his family ; a boy may 

»Ref. 40, pp. 181-182. 

<Ref. 40, p. 147; Ref. 45, 10. 



Motivation of Work 69 

become so interested in his play as to be quite oblivious 
to his duty to perform some useful task. Interest, intense 
interest, is unquestionably present in all these cases but 
interest which grows out of wants or perverted needs, — 
felt needs perhaps — ^but not real needs. 

Mr. H. B. Wilson says,^ ''Why not substitute for rou- 
tine schoolroom practices, self imposed tasks which the 
pupil is vitally interested in successfully completing ?' ' 

There are several reasons why this cannot always be 
done : first, it is not at all certain that there is anything 
better to substitute ; second, many of the pupils who con- 
stitute the teacher 's ' ' problem ' ' are not vitally interested 
in anything that the school can indorse or sanction ; third, 
many pupils are so transitory in their interests that they 
seldom, if ever, complete any task unless under compul- 
sion; fourth, many of the self-imposed tasks are not 
worthwhile, so far as being contributions to the ultimate 
efficiency of the pupil ; fifth, the great differences in the 
interests of pupils and the resulting great variety of 
"worthwhile self-imposed tasks" would so disorganize 
classes as to make class teaching practically impossible; 
and sixth, in order to develop adequate social efficiency, 
many real needs must be considered by the teacher which 
do not have in them a felt appeal to the pupil. These real 
needs must have attention at a time determined by the 
pupil 's psychological development, and by social require- 
ments, fully as much as by the pupil's feeling in the 
matter. 

Habit formation frequently comes under this cate- 
gory.^ Habits are a valuable part of one's efficiency- 
equipment, and many habits, in order to be effectively 
mastered, must be acquired during early childhood. 
Young children do not appreciate the importance of 
habits, and older ones seldom place a proper value upon 

"Ref. 45, p. 10. 
•Ref. 41. 



70 Study of Corporation Schools 

them until the time for their easiest mastery has past, 
so that the fixing of proper habits cannot be, to any 
great extent, self imposed tasks, or tasks in the successful 
completion of which the pupil is vitally interested. The 
mastery of the multiplication tables, correct spelling, 
promptness, regularity in eating, cleanliness of person, 
and good manners are illustrations of important habits 
which usually become fixed only through the use of ex- 
traneous incentives. 

Professor Dewey"^ has set forth the value of interest 
as a motive to effort in school work. There is no dispo- 
sition to question the validity of his argument, so far as 
the value of interest is concerned, but his assumption of 
the temporal sequence, — that effort is always subsequent 
to an intrinsic interest in the outcome of the situation, — 
is at least open to argument. Psychologists'^ treatments 
of derived or secondary passive attention, point to the 
conclusion that interest grows out of effort quite as surely 
as effort out of interest. Examples are not lacking^ to 
show that effort under stress of compulsion to master a 
certain lesson or subject results quite frequently in in- 
tense and lasting interest in that subject. In the mastery 
of such subjects as telegraphy, typewriting, instrumental 
music, and foreign languages, in which one of the essen- 
tial elements is automatization of responses, there always 
comes a period when novelty no longer appeals, when in- 
terest lags, and progress stops. This is a critical period 
and unless continued effort is kept up by compulsion, 
either from within or without, the desired mastery is 
never gained and the learning process is a failure. 

The ''problem" situation^^ in which the pupil sees 

''Interest and Effort in Education. 

"Titchener, E. B. Textbook of Psychology, pp. 268 et seq. Angell, J. 
R. Psychology, pp. 84 et seq. 

•Bagley, W. C. School Discipline, Chap XIV. Bryan and Harter, 
Psych. Rev. Vol. IV. 

loWilson, H. B. and G. M. Motivation in School Work, p. 10. Mann, 
C, R. Teaching of Physics, Part III. Dewey, J. Interest and Effort in Ed- 
ucation. 



Motivation of Work 71 

the realization of some value of vital interest to him, some 
satisfaction of a real felt need, is doubtless one in which 
the pupil will make the greatest effort, the greatest gain, 
and the most efficient mastery of subject matter. The 
teacher 's task would be comparatively easy if the pupil ^s 
feeling of the worthwhileness in any situation, — his felt 
need, — always coincided with his real need. 

This places upon the teacher the responsibility of 
pointing out or creating and developing wherever possi- 
ble, the problematic situation. He must organize his 
work so that the pupil's time shall be employed in his 
efforts to realize some significant or worthy end. Only 
by so doing can the activity of the pupil be developed to 
its highest efficiency. 

From the point of view of the corporation school, mo- 
tivation is quite as important as in other schools. Motives 
will vary, according as the various aims of education are 
considered paramount. The aims of corporation schools 
are doubtless narrower than the aims of the public sec- 
ondary school or technical schools, but they are more 
specific and the corporation school has in addition to the 
incentives applicable to public school work some other 
very specific motives. 

In the opinion of the writer, teachers in other types 
of schools can profit by making use, as far as possible, of 
the motives employed in corporation schools, and on the 
other hand, corporation school teachers can develop a 
broader outlook and a higher efficiency by a theoretical 
as well as a working knowledge of motivation as it is 
employed in the best public schools. 

Public secondary school teachers and technical-school 
teachers have at their command the following motives: 
promotion, grades and marks, commendation and praise, 



72 Study of Corporation Schools 

objective standards,* privileges and immunities, penal- 
ties, the "school situation,'' and the '* problem" situa- 
tion. Another group of motives not wholly distinct nor 
separable from these are: ideals, attitudes, and instinc- 
tive tendencies. 

There are two motive situations mentioned above 
which merit a brief discussion. There are : the * ' school 
situation", and the "problem" situation. 

1. The * * school situation" : In America the one pub- 
lic institution which more than any other is taken for 
granted, is the public school. From the very beginning of 
our national life, the atmosphere has been permeated with 
education. It is then no occasion for wonder that the 
average American child takes school life and school duties 
as a matter of course. Nothing is easier or more natural 
than to do what everybody else is doing, and so it hap- 
pens that most American children need no extraneous 
spur, no artificial incentive. Let the average pupil be 
asked why he works to prepare his lessons well, why he 
goes to school, and the chances are that he will reply, in 
substance at least, that "it is the thing to do." He is 
not conscious of any of the other and more artificial mo- 
tives which have been named. The school situation is the 
all sufficient motive ; ideals of duty, of industry, and of 
right conduct are inherent in the atmosphere of the situ- 
ation. 

2. The problem situation: The advantages and the 
disadvantages of the "problem" were discussed above.. 
While the "problem" situation or problem method does 
not adequately meet all the requirements for motiva- 
tion in actual practice it is without doubt the most effi- 
cient and most natural stimulus, and no teacher can be 

*A summary of the investigations on Teachers' marks and marking 
systems is found in the Journal of Educational Administration and Super- 
vision, February '15 by Dr. H. O. Rugg. Summaries of standard tests and 
scales are found in the same journal October, 1916, and Publication No. 6, 
1915, of the Division of Reference and Research, Department of Educa- 
tion, New York City. 



Motivation of Work 73 

rightly called successful who does not employ this method 
in situations where it is applicable. There is always pres- 
ent, however, the danger of going out of the way to in- 
troduce into a situation, teacher-made problems which 
involve only tasks, in the mastery of which the pupils, 
due to their immaturity, do not realize any worthwhile 
outcome. 

The motives which have been mentioned above have 
an application to the work of the corporation school quite 
as frequently as to the work of the public schools. Cor- 
poration schools however, have the decided advantage of 
some motives inherent in the corporation school. These 
more specific motives which are available for the cor- 
poration school are: 

1. the relation of employee to employer, 

2. pecuniary interest, 

3. the ''shop situation," 

4. real problems. 

1. The relation of the employee to the employer neces- 
sarily affects the work of the corporation school. Among 
these relations are : unquestioned and unhesitating obedi- 
ence demanded and required of the employee, prompt 
and regular attendance at work, penalties in the form of 
fines or dismissal for insubordination, and the rewards of 
promotion for faithful service. That these relations have 
much to do with the attitude of students in these schools 
can scarcely be questioned. 

2. Pecuniary interest: Apprentices and students in 
corporation schools usually receive wages during the en- 
tire period of their training. This fact presents a con- 
dition so different from public secondary school and tech- 
nical school practices that it affects any other comparisons 
which may be made between the two kinds of schools. 
This motive has to do with the means of livelihood, with 
future competence, and when one can learn a trade, mas- 
ter a vocation or a profession, and at the same time earn 



74 Study of Corporation Schools 

a living, he has a motive force which usually obviates the 
necessity for any other incentive. 

3. The ''shop situation." In the foregoing discus- 
sion, the ' ' school situation ' ' was shown to be an important 
factor in the motivation of school activities. What was 
said of the ''school situation" may be said with equal 
applicability of the "shop situation." The very name 
shop is synonymous with work, industry, attention, and 
respect for authority; and it seems to exclude idleness, 
shilly-shallying and inefficiency. 

It is difficult to define what is here termed the ' ' shop 
situation ' ' and the resulting ' ' shop attitude ' ' just as the 
attitude which grows out of the ' ' school situation ' ' eludes 
analysis. It is taken for granted by all concerned, em- 
ployers and employees alike ; and this spirit, to a very 
great extent, pervades the corporation school as a de- 
partment of the plant, quite as noticeably as the other 
departments. This condition relieves the corporation 
school teacher of the necessity for frequent resort to arti- 
ficial stimuli to effort. 

In this particular, corporation schools have an envia- 
ble situation. During the writer's visitation of corpora- 
tion schools, everywhere the favorable attitude of stu- 
dents toward the school has been in evidence. In one 
school in reply to the query, whether the very apparent 
interest of the students in their work was due to any spe- 
cial aptitude of the students for the particular courses 
they were pursuing, there was the significant statement : 
"It is not a matter of aptitude but of 'attitude'." The 
truth of this statement was attested by the replies made 
by several students, that they had not been conscious of 
any special leaning toward the kind of work that they 
were doing, but that they had taken the first job which 
had offered itself. Mr. Hultz, who is in charge of the 
"junior academy" of the Marshall Field and Company's 
store in Chicago, also says that success is not a matter of 



Motivation of Work 75 

aptitude as much as attitude. "The average American 
boy has the ability in the proper environment to succeed 
in any one of a half dozen vocations. ' '* 

If then, aptitude does not account fully for this de- 
sirable attitude found in corporation schools, its source 
must be sought in some other direction. In the writer's 
opinion, this source is inherent in the three motive situ- 
ations just discussed and in the real problems and proj- 
ects which make up a large part of the activity of the 
corporation school. 

4. Real problems and projects: The earlier discus- 
sions of these topics pointed out their importance as 
sources of interest. The greater applicability of these 
motives to the corporation school is due to the fact that 
much of the general education and practically all of the 
shop work has a connection with the present and future 
economic activities of the students. They are mastering 
the principles and processes of their chosen vocations and 
they realize that their chances for success and advance- 
ment are directly proportional to the degree of mastery 
attained. The shop work is usually done under condi- 
tions where the shop attitude prevails and where the re- 
quirements of the work are the rigid commercial stand- 
ards of excellence of output and economy of time. 

The shop attitude and the real-problem situation, how- 
ever desirable and however common they maj be, do not 
seem to have in them the elements of all sufficient motiva- 
tion. Actual practice indicates that they are sometimes 
found lacking. In many corporation schools, pecuniary 
prizes for excellence of school work and bonuses for the 
satisfactory completion of courses are frequently given. 
Out of thirty- three schools reporting, ^^ ten offer prizes or 
bonuses, another report ^^ shows that eighteen out of 

♦Personal interviews at the R. R. Donelley Company plant, at Swift 
and ('onipany s plant, and at Marshall Field & Companv's store. 
"Ref. 42, p. 75. 
"Ref. 19, p. 145. 



76 Study of Corporation Schools 

forty-nine give prizes or bonuses, and others^ ^ show that 
this practice is quite common. 

Conclusion 

In the last two motives discussed, the *^shop situa- 
tion" and the real problem, the corporation school has 
an advantage over the public secondary school and over 
the technical school which accounts for a considerable 
part of the superiority (where superiority is shown) of 
the corporation school over the other types of schools. 
The utility of these two motives suggest that the solution 
of the problem of vocational education may be found in 
some form of organization which will make use of the 
most powerful motivating situations of both groups of 
schools. 



MRef. 31, chart p. 120. 



Curricula and Course of Study 77 



Chapter VII 

Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as to 
Curricula and Courses of Study 

The fourth point of view from which to compare the 
corporation school with public secondary schools and 
technical schools is in the matter of curricula and courses 
of study. 

If all that is implied in the aim of the National Asso- 
ciation of Corporation Schools — '*to increase the effi- 
ciency of industry ' ' — ^be accepted, there arises the neces- 
sity of taking into consideration other educational values 
besides the practical, in judging curricula and courses of 
study. 

While the practical must dominate, especially in cor- 
poration schools, there are frequent opportunities to 
choose between materials which have other educational 
values in varying degrees. It has been pointed out that 
knowledge — knowledge of specific facts and specific proc- 
esses — is the desired outcome in corporation schools. Effi- 
ciency as measured by increased dividends must be the 
ultimate end of all business activity, yet this aim need 
not be unmixed with higher and more humanitarian aims 
and other educational values. 

Among these other educational values are the follow- 



ing:! 



practical 
intellectual 
political and civic 



social 


esthetic 


ethical 


conventional 


religious 


cultural 



These aims are largely self-explanatory and it is not 
in point here to elaborate upon them. The consideration 
of these aims contribute to a broader definition of the 
* ' highest efficiency. ' ' 

^Davis, 0. O. High School Courses of Study, Chip. HI. 



78 Study of Corporation Schools 

It is not within the scope of this study to outline cur- 
ricula and courses^ for any particular type of school. The 
writer points out some of the evident weaknesses of ex- 
isting courses, and enumerates a few guiding principles 
for curriculum planning and building. 

The writer has examined 46 courses and curricula 
from corporation schools and from public secondary 
schools and technical schools; and has compared them 
from three standpoints: first, logical and pedagogical 
arrangement; second, content; and third, time allotment. 
In making these comparisons, the writer has kept in mind 
the aims of corporation schools (Chapter III) which are 
admittedly much narrower and more specific than those 
usually sought in public secondary schools or technical 
schools. 

The curricula shown in successive year-books of dif- 
ferent corporation schools reveal the fact that some 
have grown simply by accretion, coral-like, without any 
organic connection between the old courses and the added 
materials. In a growing institution it is not easy to avoid 
this difficulty. Perhaps the only remedy is to reorganize 
these curricula more frequently, in order that the later 
courses may be properly articulated with the old ones. 

This lack of proper arrangement of lesson and course 
topics is a natural outcome of building piece by piece, in- 
stead of planning all with a view to the interrelation 
among the several parts. 

An illustration of this point is found in a course in 
mechanical drawing. In this outline, several early lessons 
in the course involve working drawings of machine parts, 

^hese terms are used as defined by a committee of the North Central 
Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. (Unpublished.) 

Course of Study is the work in one subject or a division of that subject 
running through one term or semester. 

Curricuhim is a group of courses related to each other, outlined for a 
particular group of students, and continuing through a number of terms 
or semesters. 

Program of studies includes all the different courses and curricula of- 
fered in a school. 



Curricula and Course of Study 79 

while such elementary problems as drawing parallels and 
perpendiculars, are deferred to a much later period in 
the course. This is perhaps an extreme case but other 
examples of a similar disregard for pedagogical and log- 
ical sequence are common. 

One of the serious faults in curricula and courses 
is lack of a proper time distribution. This point is illus- 
trated in the work-shop outline for technical graduates, 
found in one of the circulars examined by the writer. 
The following classes of work were outlined : 

milling machines lathe 

screw machine gear cutting 

grinders drill press 

tool room machines foundry 

The same amount of time — nine weeks — was assigned 
to each of these classes of work, without any apparent 
regard for the varying degrees of difficulty involved in 
the processes. Any intelligent technical graduate can be 
taught in a few hours to operate a drill press or a screw 
machine fully as well as an old operator, but possibly 
not so fast, and there is no logical reason for keeping 
a student at such work nine weeks when many of the 
other processes require so much more time before the 
student attains a mastery of them. An outline for un- 
dergraduate courses, secured from the Mechanical Engi- 
neering Department of the University of Illinois, shows 
the following distribution of time for these items : 

milling machine 12 weeks foundry 16 weeks 

lathe 12 weeks grinders 6 weeks 

screw machine .... 4 weeks drill press 4 weeks 

If undergraduates can master these processes in the 
specified time, technical graduates ought to master a new 
machine for these processes in a relatively short time. 
This discrepancy is further emphasized by the fact that 
one well-known "special training" school expects tech- 
nical graduates to master the operation of the screw ma- 
chine in four and a half days. In another outline, tool 



80 Study of Corporation Schools 

designing is given ten weeks of shop practice, while an- 
other concern in the same business requires the mastery 
of this process in less than a week. Both these com- 
panies accept only technical graduates. 

This criticism of time allotment does not apply with 
such force when students are engaged in real productive 
work under shop conditions and a somewhat arbitrary 
time distribution for the various classes of work may be 
necessary in order to keep all the machines and all the 
students busy, but it is poor pedagogical practice to keep 
technical graduates employed in any learning process 
longer than necessary to master the process. 

Faulty time distribution is also frequently found in 
the theoretical work. This is one of the chief weaknesses 
of courses outlined only in loose-leaf lesson sheets. While 
lesson sheets have some advantages (see next chapter), 
they are likely to be poorly balanced as to time allot- 
ments,^ and relatively unimportant topics are often given 
allotments of time equal to those given to important prin- 
ciples. 

The examples just cited emphasize the importance 
of guiding principles in planning curricula and courses. 
These principles are summarized below : 

1. Each course, each topic in a course, and each 
shop assignment should be allotted only such a propor- 
tion of the entire time available as will enable students 
to attain a reasonable degree of mastery of it. 

2. Time distribution must be made with the entire 
curriculum in view, and hence must be the result of con- 
sultation between the instructor and the school adminis- 
trator. 

3. Time allotments should be made with due regard 

'A valuable discussion of time distribution of interest to educational 
directors is found in the Fourteenth Tearbooh, Part I, of the National So- 
ciety for the Scientific Study of Education. Public School Publishing Co., 
Bloomington, Illinois. 



CUREICULA AND COURSE OF STUDY 81 

to the relative educational values of the various lesson or 
course units. 

4. A proper pedagogical or logical sequence of various 
lesson and course units must be observed. 

Below are reproduced a number of curricula from 
both corporation schools and public schools, in order to 
illustrate some of the faults and some of the strong points 
in curriculum building. It will be noticed that several of 
the exhibits are simply outlines of single courses rather 
than curricula. It is, of course, quite possible to have an 
admirable curriculum on paper and to have a wide de- 
parture from it in practice, and the writer does not as- 
sume in the case of the curricula presented that they are 
carried out as printed. Some of the curricula are definite 
as to time allotment for the different topics while others 
give little or no information on this point. 

CURRICULUM A. 

MECHANICS' SHORT COURSE 

For Automobile Mechanics to be "Packardized." 
Total time three months 

Pleasure car factory motor room 1 week 

steering 3 days 

bridge and transmission 1 week 

chassis 3 days 

"K. B." 1 \geek 

Truck factory motor 3 days 

steering 3 days 

bridge and transmission 1 week 

chassis 3 days 

truck tuning 1 week 

Electrical department wiring testing circuits .... 3 days 

"K. B." 3 days 

Operating department car inspection 3 days 

truck inspection 3 days 

car driving test 1 week 

truck driving test 1 week 

In this mechanics' short course, the time allotments 
are definite and the sequence of topics clearly shown, but 
details arc lacking as to the content of the course units. 



82 Study of Corporation Schools 

OUBRIOULUM B. 

STUDENTS' TRAINING COURSE IN STOCK-ROOM 

(Western Electric Company, Chicago.) 

1st day Friday, Class C 

2nd day Saturday, Tool Room 

3rd day Monday, C. T. Sub Station Counter 

4th day Tuesday, , Hardware and Line Material 

5th day Wednesday, Power Material 

6th day Thursday, Sub Sets and Inter -phones 

7th day Friday, Inter. Wires and Power Wires 

8th day Saturday, Lamps and Batteries 

9th day Monday, Receiving, Shipping and Cable work 

10th day Tuesday, Shop and Clearing house 

11th day Wednesday, Working with Stockkeeper 

12th day Thursday, putting away stock and working 

13th day Friday, in stock racks 

14th day Saturday, Supply Stocks 

15th day Monday, 

16th day Tuesday, Working with selectors 

17th day Wednesday, to pick material 

18th day Thursday, 4-days on Supply Material 

19th day Friday, 1 day on Telephone Material 

20th day Saturday, 

SUMMARY. 

By this time the student shall be familiar with all the operations re- 
quired on an order, from the time it is received from the customer to its 
shipment. He shall know the various classes of customers to whom we ship, 
and the kind of material each one uses. He shall study the organization of 
a branch house, and know the duties of each part. If questions arise which 
do not seem to be answered satisfactorily by the various division heads, he 
shall make a note of them and before the end of the term seek an interview 
with the stores manager, who will be glad to answer any questions. 

The above course is presented as an examp]e of detail 
in showing the sequence of course units and the allot- 
ments of time to the various units. 

Few corporation school courses or curricula have been 
worked out with such detail as the above, and no public 
secondary school or technical school curricula approach 
the definiteness of this time allotment. 

CURRICULUM 0. 

ENGINEERING CURRICULUM FOR COLLEGE GRADUATES 

(Western Electric Company, Chicago) 

Total time 49 we^s 

Educational department 4 days 

General acquaintance with the Hawthorne Plant, history and organiza- 
tion of the company, history and development of the telephone industry, 
inspection trips through the shops. 



CUERICULA AND COURSE OF StUDY 83 

Apparatus assembly department 4 weeks 

Keys, relays, drops, signals ringers, generators, coin collectors, jackB, 
lamps, tele phones. 

Machine department 2 weeks 

Tapping, drilling, milling, hand-screw machine, automatic screw ma- 
chine, punch press, metal finishing, tool design and tool maki ng. 

Cable and cord departments 1 week 

Manufacturing of cords, switchboard cable, le ad covered cable. 

Switch board wiring department 6 weeks 

Wiring, testing, inspection, local cable forming, mounting apparatus, 
study of types of sw itch boards for various service requirements. 

Factory cabling department 2 weeks 

Forming, soldering, testing, inspecting of cable for telephone offices. 

Educational department 1 week 

Laboratory work on switch board circuits and exchange operation. 

Engineering laboratories. New York 6-12- weeks* 

Laboratory practice in physical and electrical measurements and trans- 
mission study. 

Installation department 16-20 weeks* 

Installation and assembly of telephone switch board, cabling, testing, 
inspection. 

Engineering drafting, department 0-8 weeks* 

drafting methods, designs, practices. 

* Depending upon permanent work aimed at. 

Curriculum C gives definite information as to se- 
quence of the larger course units and the time allotted to 
them. The content of the curriculum is more definitely 
shown than in many examined. 

The curricula B and C are good examples of the effect 
of the efficiency engineer upon all departments of an 
institution. Time allotment is one of the chief items in 
the duty of the efficiency engineer but the curricula of 
public secondary schools and technical schools show little 
evidence of the work of such an official. 

CURRICULUM D. 

CURRICULUM FOR BRIDGE ENGINEERS 
(American Bridge Company) 

First Year 

first semester : advanced algebra mechanical drawing 

second semester : plane geometry structural drawing 

Second Year 

first semester : solid geometry strength of materials 

second semester : trigonometry elementary mechanics 



84 



Study of Corporation Schools 



Third Year 

first semester: 
second semester ; 



analytic geometry- 
differential calculus 



bridge and building design 
bridge and building design 



Fourth Year 

first semester: 
second semester : 



Integral calculus 
advanced mechanics 



bridge and building design 
bridge and building design 



The above curriculum does not state the number of 
hours per week nor the number of weeks for any course, 
so that time allotments cannot be criticised. The sequence 
of courses is subject to criticism for the separate teaching 
of differential and integral calculus. Many good teachers 
now teach them simultaneously. 



CURRICULUM E. 
UNION SCHOOL OF SALESMANSHIP CURRICULUM, BOSTON 



Textiles 

Fibres — ^wool, silk, cotton, linen. 
Manufacture. 
Commercial geography- 
Fabrics. 



Econmics 

Relation of capital and wages 
Relation of expenditure to in- 
come 
The spending of money 
The saving of money 



Color and Design 

Recognition of color tones 
Color combinations 
Appropriate use of colors 
Principles of design in dress and 
furnishing 



Salesmanship 



Discussion of store experiences 
and the principles involved 

Demonstration selling and class 
criticisms 

Lectures on retail selling 

Care of stock 

Approaching a customer 

Individual conferences with sales 
girls 



Arithmetic 

Sale slip practice and store sys- 
tem 

Drill in addition and multipli- 
cation 

Fractions and percentage 

Cash accounts 

Business forms 

Personal hygiene as related to busi- 
ness honesty 
Hygienic dress 
(Personal appearance 
Bathing 

Sleep and ventilation 
Diet 
The nerves 



The above curriculum given no information as to ar- 
rangement of courses or time allotments. The content of 
the courses is not outlined in detail. 

The following curriculum from the University of Illi- 
nois Register, taken in connection with the descriptions 



Curricula and Course of Study 



85 



of the various courses referred to by number, is a typical 
technical school curriculum outline. It is definite as to 
the amount of time for each course, as to the content and 
sequence of the courses. 



CURRICULUM F. 

CURRICULUM IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 
First Year 



First Semester 

Hours 
Chem. la or lb — Inorganic Chem- 
istry 3 or 4 

G. E. D. 1 — ^Elements of Drafting 4 

Math. 2 — Algebra 3 

Math. 4 — Trigonometry 2 

Rhet. 1 — Rhetoric and Themes. . 3 

Engineering lecture 

Phys. Tr. 1 and la — Gymnasium 

and Hygiene 1 

Mil. 2a — Military Drill 1 



Second Semester 

Hours 

Chem. 4 — Qualitative Analysis. . . 4 
G. E. D. 2 Descriptive Geom- 
etry 4 

Math. 6 — Analytic Geometry 5 

Rhet. 2 — Rhetoric and Themes ... 3 

Engineering Lecture 

Phys. Tr. 2 — Gymnasium 1 

Mil. 1 — Drill Regulations 1 

Mil. 2d — Military Drill 1 



— Total 



.19 



Total 17 or 18 



Second Year 



Language 4 

Math. 7 — Differential Calculus ... 5 
M. E. 75 and 77 — Forge and 
Foundry, or M. E. 79 — Pattern 

Work 3 

Phys. la — Physics Lectures 3 

Phys. 3a — 'Physics Laboratory. . . 2 
Mil. 2c — Military Drill 1 

Total 18 



Language 4 

Math. 9 — Integral Calculus 3 

M. E. 75 and 77 — Forge and 
Foundry, or M. E. 79 — Pattern 

Work 3 

Phys. lb — Physics Lectures ... 2 
Phys. 3b — Physics Laboratory. . . 2 
T. & A. M. 20 — Analytical Mechan- 

ics. 
Mil. 2d — ^Military Drill 1 

Total 18 



Third Year 



Chem. 4 — Qualitative Analysis... 4 
E. E. 25 — Direct Current Appa- 
ratus 4 

E. E. 75 — Electrical Engineering 

Laboratory 2 

Math. 9a — Integral Calculus 2 

Phys. 4a — Electrical and Magnetic 

Measurement 2 

T. & A. M. 25 — Resistance of Ma- 
terials 4 



E. E. 26 — Alternating Currents,. 4 
E. E. 76 — Electrical Engineering 

Laboratory 2 

M. E. 2 — Steam Engineering. ... 3 

Non-technical elective 3 

Phys. 4b — Electrical and Magnetic 

Measurement 2 

T. & A. M. 26 — Analytical Me- 
chanics and Hydraulics 4 



— Total 18 



To:-"! IS 



86 



Study of Corporation Schools 



FOUBTH YbAB 



E. E. 35 — Alternating Current 

Apparatus • . . 4 

E. E. 55 — ^Electrical Design 2 

E. E. 85 — ^Electrical Engineering 

Laboratory 2 

E. E. 95 — Seminar 1 

M. E. 11 — Thermodynamics 3 

M. E. 61 — Power Measurement. . 2 

E. E. 99 — Inspection Trip 

Non-technical elective 8 



E. B. 36 — ^Alternating Current 

Apparatus 4 

E. E. 56 — ^Electrical Design.... 4 
E. E. 86 — ^Electrical Engineering 

Laboratory 2 

E. E. 96 — Seminar 1 

E. E. 98 — ^Thesis or elective 3 

Non-technical elective . 3 

Total 17 



Total 17 



CURRICULUM G. 



CRANE MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO. 
Scientific Course 



First Year Courses Weeks Hours per Credits 

week 

English 40 4 .8 

Algebra 40 4 .8 

Physiology 20 5 .4 

Physiography 20 5 .4 

Mechanical Drawing .40 4 .8 

Wood- work 40 8 .8 

Freehand Drawing 40 1 .2 

Gymnasium 40 1 .1 

Music 40 1 .1 

Total 4.4 

Second Year English Literature 40 4 .8 

Plane Geometry 40 4 .8 

Zoology or Botany 40 6 .8 

Mechanical Drawing 40 4 .8 

Blacksmithing 20 10 .4 

Foundry and Pattern work 20 10 .4 

Gymnasium 40 1 .1 

Music .40 1 .1 

Tota l 4.2 

Third Year English 40 2 .4 

Solid Geometry 20 4 .4 

Advanced Algebra . -j 20 4 .4 

Physics 40 6 .8 

Modern History 40 4 .8 

Machine Shop Practice 40 6 .6 

Machine or Arch. Drawing 40 4 .8 

Freehand Drawing .40 2 .4 

Gymnasium 40 1 .1 

Music 40 1 .1 

Total 4.8 



Curricula and Course of Study 87 

Fourth Year American History 20 4 .4 

Civil Grovernment 20 4 .4 

Trigonometry 20 4 .4 

Engineering 20 4 .4 

Chemistry 40 6 .8 

Machine or Arch. Design 40 4 .8 

English 40 4 .8 

Freehand Drawing 40 4 .8 

Gsonnasium 40 1 .1 

Electric Shop 40 10 1.0 

Total 5.9 

The above is a typical secondary-school curriculum. 
It gives the time allotments, and the sequence of courses, 
but no information as to the content of the courses, and 
no information as to the time allotted to the larger course 
units. 

CONCLUSION 

The most obvious conclusion to be drawn from the 
curricula shown in this chapter, and from others which 
have been examined, is that a very large proportion of 
them do not give sufficient information to form the basis 
of a satisfactory comparison between the two groups of 
schools. So far as this information may be considered 
a basis for such a comparison, the writer's opinion is that 
the curricula and courses of study of public secondary 
schools and technical schools show a greater considera- 
tion for pedagogical and logical arrangement and a more 
thorough organization of the courses into curricula and 
of course units into courses; and that the courses and 
curricula of corporation schools show a greater specificity 
and a closer relation between the materials of instruction 
and the aims sought. The courses and curricula of public 
secondary schools and technical schools show a greater 
breadth and a greater consideration for the other educa- 
tional aims and values enumerated at the beginning of 
this chapter. 

As to time allotments no conclusion is warranted as to 
which type of school shows the better usage. The 



88 Study of Corporation Schools 

courses and curricula examined indicate that the question 
of time allotments has been more generally considered 
in public secondary schools and technical schools than in 
corporation schools, but in the few cases where corpora- 
tion school administrators have applied the principles of 
the efficiency expert, their curricula show a much more 
careful working out of time allotments than has been 
found in any public secondary school or technical school 
curricula. 



Textbooks 89 



Chapter VIII 

Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as to 
Textbooks and Lesson Sheets 

In this chapter a comparison is made between the cor- 
poration school on the one hand, and the public schools 
and technical schools on the other hand, in the matter of 
textbooks and lesson sheets. In the first part of the 
chapter an attempt is made to determine what standards 
are available for the criticism of text books and lesson 
sheets ; in the latter part of the chapter the textbooks and 
lesson sheets used and offered for use in corporation 
schools are tested by these standards. A practical 
difficulty exists as to the definition of a corporation 
school textbook and an ordinary textbook. For this 
study, a corporation school textbook is one published os- 
tensibly for use in corporation schools, though naturally 
no publisher would refuse to supply his books for use in 
any kind of school. Ordinary textbooks are also fre- 
quently used in corporation schools as well as in public 
schools and technical schools. There is, therefore, no 
well defined boundary line between the two types of 
books. 

The writer has been able to secure but a very limited 
number of treatises on textbook writing. ^ One of these,^ 
by Mr. J. A. Waddell, is summarized as follows: '*In 
writing a textbook, the first step is to determine the scope 
and the limitations of the book, then to determine a tenta- 
tive, and later a final list of chapters and the specific 
scope of each chapter. The proper sequence of chapters 

^Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching, Chap. XVII. Frost, H. Good 
Engineering Literature. Chicago Book Co. 

^Waddell, J. A. Technical Textbook Writing, Engineering Education, 
Nov. and Dec, 1916. 



90 Study of Corporation Schools 

is of paramount importance, and consideration must be 
observed for both logical and chronological sequence. 
* * Mr. Waddell recommends copious reference) to authori- 
ties as well as a careful selection of quotations from the 
best technical writers on the subject being treated. Ut- 
most care must be observed to include the latest knowl- 
edge and treatment of the most modem procedure. He 
also believes that textbooks merit finely polished technical 
English, and that this must be ''first handwritten, then 
corrected, then typed and then corrected again.'' He 
states further, ''I have never seen samples of dictated 
technical work which I would be willing to have at- 
tributed to my pen In general^ diagrams are 

better than tables, tables better than formulae and for- 
mulae better than written description .... Consist- 
ence in spelling, capitalization, punctuation, hypheniza- 
tion, and use of symbols is a rare but most valuable at- 
tainment in textbook writing .... Elegance of dic- 
tion is the most important attribute of any writer, next 
to that of producing something worthwhile, and perusal 
is directly proportional to good diction. ' ' 

Mr. Waddell makes much of mechanical perfection of 
the manuscript, and of the final printed pages, and very 
properly so, for there is scarcely any fault which preju- 
dices a reader so much against a book as errors of punctu- 
ation, spelling, and typesetting, unless it be actual errors 
in statement of facts, principles, or conclusions. 

''The last thing to be done in connection with the 
writing of textbooks is the preparation of the index. The 
secret of good indexing is a wise selection of key-words 
for each topic, words which are likely to suggest them- 
selves to seekers after information. "^ Many an other- 
wise excellent textbook has its value greatly reduced by 
lack of a good index. 

•Frost, H. Good Engineering Literature, Chicago Book Co. 



Textbooks 91 

Two points of view of a good textbook are shown in 
the following quotations. The first is from the stand- 
point of the printer and asks : 

"Does the volume represent the best in typography ? 

"Is the paper and binding suitable and durable? 

"Is the presswork excellent, clear cut and easy to read ? 

"Does the volume as a whole appear as the work of an artist?" 

The second is from the standpoint of the teacher and 
asks: 

"Is the subject matter within the experience and reach of the intended 
students ? 

"Is the subject matter arranged with proper sequence? 

"Does each section or chapter appear as a whole, or is it scrappy, con- 
taining much irrelevant matter?" 

The authorities cited above, and good usage in text- 
book writing seem to agree upon the following *' prin- 
ciples" which should control the writing of either text- 
books or lesson-sheets : 

1. Books must be truthful, at least in so far as to avoid misstatements 
known to be such by well informed persons. Many books show evidence of 
having been written by persons having little accurate practical personal 
knowledge of the subject treated. 

2. Books must be up-to-date. Out-of-date knowledge, out-of-date pro- 
cesses, out-of-date facts, and out-of-date opinions have no place in progress- 
ive up-to-date textbooks or lesson sheets. 

3. Correctness, clearness, simplicity, and elegance of style are "fully 
as important" as accuracy of statement. 

4. Completeness of treatment, so far as the time allotted for the pro- 
posed course will allow, is essential. 

5. Due regard must be had for a proper logical and pedagogical se- 
quence of topics and subtopics as well as for chapter headings. 

6. Illustrations or tables, in order to be justified, must give more or 
better information than could be given in the same space if given to reading 
matter. 

7. Consistency and mechanical accuracy in matters of spelling, cap- 
italization, punctuation, use of symbols, and abbreviations must be observed. 

8. Mechanical excellence in matters of composition, type-setting and 
presswork, and in quality of paper and binding are important. 

9. Textbooks must not be encyclopedic, and must be adapted to the 
advancement of the students for whom they are intended. 

In pursuing this investigation the writer has exam- 
ined thirty-one sets of lesson sheets, and over one hun- 
dred textbooks used or offered for use in corporation 
schools and public schools. Corporation school admin- 
istrators have been quite ready to respond to requests for 
information in regard to books used, and they have been 



92 Study of Corporation Schools 

liberal in sending copies of their textbooks and lesson 
sheets. 

It is impossible to state more than approximately the 
relative number of corporation schools which are using 
lesson sheets or textbooks, though judging from data col- 
lected and from personal observation, about half of them 
use textbooks either wholly or extensively. The follow- 
ing data are taken from committee reports: 

Number of schools 1914 1915 1916 

a) from which information was secured 35 56 27 

b) using textbooks exclusively 6 5 15 

c) using lesson sheets exclusively 11 15 7 

d) using both textbooks and lesson sheets 18 36 5 

e) "unable" to secure satisfactory textbooks 12 

f) "able" to secure satisfactory textbooks 15 

These data, though meager, show a slight tendency 
toward a more common use of textbooks and a relative 
decrease in the exclusive use of lesson sheets. If this is a 
correct estimate, and if use is any criterion of value it 
seems impossible to state which is better suited to cor- 
poration school needs. 

1. Textbooks 

The number of textbooks offered for use in corporation 
schools is rapidly increasing, as is shown by the extensive 
lists of such books given in the proceedings of the third 
annual convention of the National Association of Corpor- 
ation Schools (pages 520-526) and in the proceedings of 
the fourth annual convention (pages 160-164, 627-633, 
and 750-752). 

Without doubt many of the textbooks prepared for 
public school use are ill adapted to the specific require- 
ments of the corporation school. The chairman of the 
Committee on Public Education, of the National Associa- 
tion of Corporation Schools, reported^ that he had ex- 

*Ref. 31, p. 121; Ref. 33, p. 405: Ref. 19, p. 132; Ref. 42. 
''Ref. 27, pp. 239-40. 



Textbooks 93 

amined a large number of the mathematical textbooks 
offered by leading publishers with a view to determining 
the adaptability of these books to industry and that none 
had been found suitable. His criticism is typical of those 
frequently made by corporation school directors. He 
says, "Even a superficial examination of many of the 
textbooks in use would show to any group of business 
men that actual business conditions and requirements 
have not been considered by the authors. In a textbook 
used by my own children in the city of Detroit, bills of 
lumber are written in the reverse order of length, width, 
and thickness. 

"Problems are given which are supposed to illustrate 
general principles of arithmetic in which the necessary 
additions, multiplications, subtractions and divisions are 
so long and complicated that an expert would hardly be 
able to go through them without a mistake. 

"There is a widely used set of geographies which 
leaves about as much of an impression upon a student's 
mind of definite locations of places as a trip on a fast 
train would leave. When children get through high 
school they have almost no notion of place geography. 
The histories deal largely with the political form of gov- 
ernment and overlook the human story of life in the early 
settlements. And thus you could go down the list of 
textbooks written for teachers by teachers and point out 
many things which do not fit directly into the child's 
life, if he should enter the industries with a preparation 
that we should expect of one who has completed the ele- 
mentary schools. ' ' 

It is true that many of the public-school textbooks 
have not been kept up to date, though this criticism seems 
to the writer to apply fully as much to those who use the 
textbook as to the publishers. No publisher can justly 
be blamed for continuing to issue a book as long as there 
is a market for it. The expense of writing and publishing 



94 Study of Corporation Schools 

textbooks is very high. Talent of sufficient calibre to 
write good books usually commands high royalties and 
the expense of revision of an old edition is sufficient to in- 
duce a publisher to wait as long as possible before discon- 
tinuing that edition. A representative of a well-known 
publisher of high-grade textbooks recently told the writer 
that his company frequently invests $25,000 in editorial 
work, plates, binding and in advertising, before a single 
dollar is received in return for a new book. 

One of the frequent criticisms against ''regular" 
textbooks, is that they are not adapted to the needs of 
corporation schools. The most common of these criti- 
cisms is that the material is too general, or not near 
enough up-to-date from a scientific standpoint, or that it 
is too impractical. 

Without doubt each of these charges can be main- 
tained in individual CEises at least, yet the number of text- 
books to which these criticisms do not apply is rapidly 
decreasing. 

The following statement is from Mr. H. E. Cobb, of 
Lewis Institute, Chicago, himself a textbook writer and 
book review editor of School Science and Mathematics. 

''The textbooks in mathematics prepared for sec- 
ondary schools and colleges can not be used successfully 
in corporation schools, evening schools, and the like. The 
essential facts of mathematics, the effective way to use 
formulas and tables, and the methods of solving prob- 
lems and checking results must be presented in a way 
that they can be readily grasped by the practical man 
who finds that he needs to use mathematics in perform- 
ing his work. 

"Fortunately, mathematicians of recognized ability 
who have given instruction in shop mathematics in Uni- 
versity Extension courses or in mathematics courses in 
evening schools have felt the need and have prepared 
excellent textbooks for such work. Textbooks like Pal- 



Textbooks 95 

mer's ^'Practical Mathematics^ \ Norris and Smith's 
*'8hop Arithmetic' \ and Norris and Craigo's "Advanced 
Shop Mathematics' % not only furnish excellent material 
for instruction in practical courses, but also indicate 
clearly the way to make the mathematics textbooks used 
in secondary schools serve better the interests of most 
pupils. ' ' 

It is not an easy matter to select the best book for 
any course, but there can be no reasonable excuse for 
using a book copyrighted in 1890, yet the writer found 
this book^ in use in the school maintained by one of the 
foremost concerns in the country, and that, too, in the 
subject of arithmetic, in which there are many new books 
issued every year. If textbooks are approximately on a 
parity with teachers as educational factors, the selec- 
tion of textbooks ought to receive approximately as much 
consideration as the selection of teachers. 

No one can justly deny that textbooks prepared for 
public and technical school use are frequently open to 
the criticisms offered above, but it must not be assumed 
that the textbooks and lesson sheets prepared by corpora- 
tion school instructors are free from these, and other 
criticisms. 

The writer has examined twenty-seven textbooks used 
or offered for use in corporation schools, especially those 
prepared by corporation school instructors, and has 
found some of them very faulty, when judged by the 
criteria stated above, while others fully satisfy the stand- 
ards which have been proposed. 

Typical of the poorer class of books examined, is a 
mathematics textbook edited by the director of appren- 
ticeship work in tool designing in a large automobile man- 
ufactory, which is represented by the author as a * * com- 
plete practical manual of shop mathematics." There is 
scarcely a pedagogical principle accepted by mathematics 

•Dubb's Arithmetical Problems. 



96 Study of Corporation Schools 

teachers which is not violated in the book, and its me- 
chanical make-up, both from the standpoint of English 
composition and that of the compositor is very poor. A 
single page contains fifty-seven capitalizations not war- 
ranted by good usage, and on the following page, a single 
mathematical term is spelled or abbreviated in four dif- 
ferent ways, none of which has the warrant of good math- 
ematical usage. The book abounds in mathematical state- 
ments either faulty in form or wholly incorrect from the 
standpoint of algebra or geometry. 

Many of the so-called ''practical textbooks" are far 
superior to the one just described. 

Among this better class of textbooks is the Practical 
Mathematics series in three parts, by Mr. C. I. Palmer 
of the Armour Institute. Part I presents the applica- 
tions of arithmetic in well-selected problems illustrating 
both mathematical principles and their practical bearing 
upon real shop experience. The author finds, however, 
that he must use some ''impractical" problems in order 
to reinforce certain mathematical principles which are 
involved in practical problems later, but which are in 
some of their applications too difficult for beginning stu- 
dents. His procedure in this regard is really an admis- 
sion of the fact which has long been recognized by prac- 
tical teachers that real problems taken from actual jobs 
seldom constitute the best problem material for the fix- 
ation of mathematical principles and processes. Part II 
of this series presents the applications of geometry and 
many of the problems are real shop problems. The au- 
thor makes no claim to mathematical rigor in his ex- 
planation of geometrical principles, but his statements 
are clear and true so far as they go. Part III of this 
series is entitled "algebra." This book is open to a crit- 
icism which applies to most books on ' ' practical ^ ^ mathe- 
matics. It advances rather too rapidly in difficulty, and 
does not give enough problems for drill. The treatment 



Textbooks 97 

of anti-logarithms (page 127) is faulty from a mathemat- 
ical standpoint. On the whole this series of books satis- 
fies the criteria set up for the judgment of textbooks. 

Mr. J. W. L. Hale, supervisor of apprentices of the 
Pennsylvania Railroad Company, is the author of a series 
of shop-mathematics textbooks which easily pass all our 
criteria. ''These books are the outgrowth of five years 
of work with shop employees", and they are organized 
with a due regard for, and a full knowledge of, the lim- 
itations and the requirements of these students. 

Vocational MatJiematics, by Mr. W. H. Dooley, ex- 
plains in greater detail than most shop-mathematics 
textbooks, shop terms, materials, and processes. This 
author does not make the mistake which some make, of 
taking for granted that a boy knows things simply be- 
cause he works in a shop. 

Another book examined. Advanced SJiop Mathe- 
matics, is a compilation of shop-mathematics sheets 
worked out in the extension department of the Univer- 
sity of Wisconsin. The explanations of processes and 
principles are primarily intended for private study and 
are exceptionally full and clear. 

The Elements of Applied Mathematics, by Mr. H. E. 
Cobb, of Lewis Institute, presents mathematical prin- 
ciples without regard to whether th€y come from arith- 
metic, algebra, geometry, or trigonometry. One good 
feature of this book is that in many of the problems, the 
students are required to secure their data by actual 
measurements which they make in the shops. This book 
readily passes the test of our criteria. 

Another text, by Norris and Craigo, readily passes 
most of the criteria, though it is rather loose in several 
places from the mathematical standpoint. They say 
(page 17) : "Two minus signs make a plus sign," and 
on page 25 use the word '' transpose " in a manner hardly 
acceptable to a mathematician. 



^ Study of Corporation Schools 

Mr. J. R. Yoimg reports^ that he has examined a num- 
ber of mathematics textbooks nsed in corporation schools. 
He summarizes his examination as follows : * 'In general, 
the writers of texts for these schools have succeeded re- 
markably well in securing clear and simple statements of 
the fundamental principles of arithmetic, and some of 
the makers of more advanced texts could study their rules 
and definitions with profit. ^ ' 

The writer agrees in part with this statement, but in 
his opinion the majority of '* corporation school text- 
books" are subject to the criticism that they are too brief, 
increase in difficulty too rapidly, and take too much for 
granted in the matter of students' preparation and 
ability. Mr. H. E. Cobb, of Lewis Institute, says:^ '*lt 
is no doubt true that most books of practical mathematics 
give so little attention to the explanation of the elemen- 
tary mathematical processes that it is almost impossible 
for a man studying by himself to get a clear under- 
standing of methods and processes. 

The statement is frequently made that the '^ general'' 
text book is not adapted to the corporation school, and 
this criticism is, in a measure, true. The dominant char- 
acteristic of corporation school training is its specificity; 
that is, its direct application to particular work for which 
students are preparing, and in so far as this training is 
for specific processes in specific occupations, the general 
textbook is a misfit. 

In the foregoing comparisons of corporation school 
textbooks with the general textbook, the writer has kept 
in mind the * 'best " general textbook as determined by the 
criteria set up at the beginning of this chapter. These 
comparisons warrant the conclusion that corporation 
school textbooks are on the whole more specific and show 
a superior adaptation of lesson material to the ends de- 

''School Science and Mathematics, March, 1917, p. 243. 
^School Science and Mathematics, January, 1917, p, 94. 



Textbooks 99 

sired; but that they are more commonly subject to the 
faults of advancing too rapidly in difficulty, and of tak- 
ing too much for granted on the part of students ; and 
that they more frequently show careless editing, poor 
work on the part of the compositor, and careless proof 
reading, 

2. Lesson Sheets 

Several of the textbooks which have been examined 
contain in their prefatory pages, the statement that they 
are a compilation of lesson sheets which have been worked 
out in the shop school and which have stood the test of 
several years of service. A number of corporation school 
instructors have reported that their textbooks are still 
in the lesson sheet form. The lesson sheet is widely used 
in corporation schools and some corporation school in- 
structors^ claim that they are the only suitable lesson 
material. There is no logical reason why loose-leaf lesson 
sheets should not be a most satisfactory form of lesson 
material. 

As in case of textbooks, among the thirty-one sets 
of lesson sheets examined, both extremes of quality 
have been found. They are not free from ' ' impractical ' ^ 
or obsolete material. To illustrate this point, the follow- 
ing problem is quoted from a set of lesson sheets supposed 
to be based upon shop experience. ''Four locomotives 
consume respectively, 390 lbs, 543 lbs, 621 lbs, and 464 
lbs of coal per hour. How much coal will they all use in 
an hour? How much will they consume running night 
and day for a week ? ' ' This is not even a possible ' ' prac- 
tical '^ problem. The number of such illustrations might 
be multiplied almost without limit, emphasizing the fact 
that the making of lesson sheets is not an amateur's job. 

Several lesson sheets which have been examined, 
which undertake to present the subject of business psy- 

*Ref. 19. p. 200 et seq. 



100 Study of Corporation Schools 

chology, would not pass muster with any modern psy- 
chologist. In no field of applied science has there been 
a greater reversal or abandonment of former theories and 
practices than in the field of educational psychology. The 
old faculty theory of mind has been abandoned by prac- 
tically all modern psychologists, together with the theories 
of training these ' ' faculties. ' ' In view of this situation, 
the following construct of the human mind quoted from 
the lesson sheets on business psychology issued by the 
Telephone Society of the Mountain States is in point : 

"It may be said that there are eight attributes of mind which follow 
each other in a certain sequence: attention, interest, concentration, com- 
prehension, decision, will, reason, memory. All persons think, but all do 
not think rightly. To think rightly, the mind must be trained, so that the 
eight attributes will follow each other in proper sequence, thus progressing to- 
ward the conclusion by successive steps. When a subject first comes to 
our notice, we give it attention; if it is attractive we become interested; if 
it seems to be important we concentrate our thoughts upon it until we 
comprehend its purpose; then we make a decision as to whether or not it 
is of sufficient importance to warrant further consideration. If it does not 
seem to be of sufficient importance, we think no more about it, but if we 
decide that further consideration of it will result in fulfilling our require- 
ments along certain lines we exert our will constantly to the study of the 
subject, and thus through a process of reasoning, we store the knowledge 
in our memory which finally results in the building up of an education." 

Another lesson sheet says: ''We live in habit. Good 
habits are as easily formed as bad ones . . . . * ' These 
quotations which are typical of the psychological theory 
contained in many lesson sheets and textbooks on the 
psychology of business indicate a lack both of broad schol- 
arship and care in their preparation. 

Another fault of loose-leaf lesson sheets is the dis- 
regard they seem to exhibit for logical sequence of course 
topics. This point is illustrated in a set of lesson sheets 
on mechanical drawing in which the early lessons are 
simple working drawings of machine parts, while the 
fundamental problems of drawing perpendiculars, par- 
allels and bisectors are found much later in the course. 

Still another serious fault in lesson sheets grows out 
of the fact that they are easily replaced, and are de- 
signed for temporary, rather than for permanent use. 



Textbooks 101 

This fault is evident in careless editing, poor printing, 
poor paper and poor proof-reading which frequently in- 
jures an otherwise good set of lesson sheets. Mr. Young^^ 
says of the arithmetic used in the Santa Fe Railway Sys- 
tem's apprenticeship school: ''There is little organiza- 
tion to the problems that points to any special method of 
approach, .... and it was printed without considera- 
tion for the eyes of the apprentice. The print is exceed- 
ingly small." The writer's examination of this set of 
lessons confirms the above comment. 

These faults are, of course, not inherent in lesson 
sheets. The fact that they are used so commonly, and 
with such satisfactory results to corporation school di- 
rectors^^ indicates that they merit the tribute paid to 
them by a well-known publisher of commercial text-books. 
He says: ''We are indebted to corporation schools, for 
they are ' road makers ' in the way of textbooks. We have 
adopted into our texts for public and private schools 
many of the ideas of the lesson sheets worked out in the 
laboratories of these schools. ' ' Many lesson sheets show 
a thorough mastery of the subject treated, great care in 
the preparation of lesson material, and an admirable 
adaptation to the purpose or aim of the course in ques- 
tion. 

Among this class of lesson sheets are those used by 
the Western Electric Company in mechanical drawing, 
in practical mathematics, and in business English ; by the 
International Harvester Company, in shop mathematics 
and mechanical drawing, and by Swift and Company in 
practical arithmetic. The lesson sheets prepared by H. G. 
Petermann for the training of clerks and salesmen for the 
United Cigar Stores Company are an example of the 
specificity of the lesson material contained in good lesson 
sheets. These lesson sheets undertake to equip cigar store 

*"See Reference 7, of this Chapter. 
"Ref. 19, pp. 200 et aeq. 



102 Study of Corporation Schools 

salesmen with an accurate knowledge of what to do and 
what to say in any situation which may arise. Marshall 
Field and Company's spelling lesson sheets also show a 
good adaptation of specific materials to specific ends. 

That lesson sheets have some decided advantages over 
textbooks, will scarcely be questioned, but that they are 
subject to most of the faults of textbooks and some others 
besides is equally true. A clear, simple literary style, 
broad and up-to-date knowledge, accuracy of statement, 
careful editing, and good printing are requirements that 
apply to lesson sheets fully as much as to textbooks. 

The chief advantages of loose-leaf lesson sheets are: 

a) they are readily reorganized and revised; 

b) they bring a feeling of novelty with each new lesson; 

c) they bring to the students a suggestion of a nearer approach^ to 

real business; 

d) they are more flexible, permitting the adaptation of a course to 

local conditions, to particular classes, and to individual students. 

The serious faults to which they are subject are : 

a) poor organization, and lack of coherence and unity, 

b) a tendency to faulty sequence of course topics, 

c) lack of broad scholarship, and 

d) careless editing and poor printing. 

A summary of these discussions of textbooks and les- 
son sheets, in the writer's opinion, warrants the conclu- 
sion that, on the whole, public secondary schools and 
technical schools use better organized lesson materials 
than do corporation schools. 

i2Ref 27, p. 202. 



Summary of Conclusions 103 



PART THREE 

•Chapter IX 

Summary of Conclusions — The Cooperative School, a 
Solution of the problem of vocational Education 

It is now in order to discuss the corporation school 
from the point of view of the main question of this study : 
' ' In what way can the corporation school and the public 
school be mutually helpful in the solution of the problem 
of vocational education ? " 

The need for vocational education has been gradually 
dawning upon the American people for the past three 
decades, and society is now fully awake to its importance. 
While the movement is still in its formative state, it has 
become crystallized in the foundations established by pri- 
vate agencies, 1 in the legislation of nine^ states and many 
municipalities.^ The main outstanding feature of the 
movement, aside from its real purpose, is the lack of 
agreement as to the best means of providing vocational 
training. 

Before undertaking to answer the question as to how 
the corporation school may contribute to the solution of 
the problem, it is pertinent to summarize some recognized 
fundamental principles as to the character of education 
in a democracy.* The course of evolution through which 

^National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education ; American 
Federation of Labor, Com. on Industrial Education ; National Education 
Association. Com. on Vocational Education: Nat'onal Association of Manu- 
facturers, Com. on Industrial Education, Refs. 24, 28, 28a. 30; Ref. 24, 
p. 232. 

^Reports Commissioner of Education, 1914-'15-'16. 

•See Tables HI and Vlll. 

♦Elliot, C. W. Function of Education in a Democratic State. Mann 
Horace, The Ground for the Free School System. Ref. 40, pp. 97 et «eq. 
Ref. 41, Chap. III. 



104 Study of Corporation Schools 

these principles have come, the bitter conflict, the heroic 
battles, the temporary defeats, the discouraging reces- 
sions, and the final triumph, constitute some of the most 
romantic and heroic pages in the history of the growth 
of democratic principles. It is not pertinent here to re- 
cite the story, except to enumerate the results. These 
fundamental principles of education in America are : 

1. Education in a Democracy Must Be Universal.^ 

This principle means that the door of opportunity 
must be open to all ; limited only by the ability of society 
to provide the opportunity, and by the pupil's intellec- 
tual and physical ability to profit by it. 

2. Education in a Democracy Must Be Free. 

The assumption by society of the financial burden of 
educating its citizens has come about only after a long 
and bitter struggle, and while the acknowledgement is 
almost universal in America, the universal practical ap- 
plication of this ideal is still unrealized. Yet this realiza- 
tion is approaching fulfillment, as is evidenced by added 
educational opportunity and increased appropriations for 
education every year.^ 

3. Education in a Democracy Must Be Compulsory. 

This principle, long ago accepted in Europe, and 
nominally accepted in America quite as early, is the latest 
one to be acknowledged by public sentiment; and even 
now several states, and many individuals have not 
reached the point where they are willing to act upon this 
principle.'^ 



^Ref. 1. pp. 97-98. 

^Report Commissioner of Education, 1916. Vol. II, p. 8. 

^Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. 



Summary of Conclusions 105 

4. Education in a Democracy Must Be Non-Sec- 

tarian. 

This principle means that edncation, in order best to 
serve democratic ideals, must not be subject to any control 
more restrictive than the broadest ideals of a democratic 
state. This principle is inherent in American Democ- 
racy.^ 

5. Education in a Democracy Must Be a Socializ- 

ing Factor, and Must Contribute to Social 
Efficiency. 

This principle means that education must ''bring peo- 
ple and classes into closer and more perceptible connec- 
tion with one another. It means not only freer inter- 
action between social groups .... but change in so- 
cial habit, and continuous readjustment."^ Social effi- 
ciency, — i. e,., the ability of the individual to act his part 
as a social unit, supporting himself and contributing to 
the common good in proportion to his intellectual and 
physical endowment, and placing a minimum of burden 
upon society in case of deficiency in these gifts — is soci- 
ety's chief warrant for the establishment and mainte- 
nance of schools.^^ 

6. Education in a Democracy Must Be Controlled 

BY the State. 

This principle has been accepted only after control by 
the family, by the church, and by private or philan- 
thropic enterprise, has been found wanting, and only 
after the state has become conscious that its own perman- 
ence can only be assured by universal education under 
state control. 11 



^Ruflfini, Prancpsco, Religious TAberty, trans. l)v Burg and Haynes 
Ref. 46, pp. 223-5. 

•Ref. 40, pp. 99-100. 

JORef. 41, Chap. III. 

"Ref. 40, pp. 108-115, Ref. 16, p. 874, Ref. 22. p. 775. 



106 Study of Corporation Schools 

The application of these six principles to vocational 
education, as well as to general education, is now so 
nearly universally accepted in the United States that 
their universal acceptation may be assumed. These six 
fundamental principles constitute a measuring rod by 
which may be gauged the efficiency of the service to the 
community of any individual school, or any system or 
type of schools. In the following paragraphs, this meas- 
uring rod is applied to the corporation school. 

The corporation school cannot become universal. It is 
now reaching less than one half of one per cent of the 
industrial workers in the United States. ^^ Business rea- 
sons require the corporation school to select the best and 
to eliminate the inferior applicants. This selection^ ^ is 
the one feature which has for the past decade arrayed the 
American Federation of Labor^^ against any form of 
privately controlled vocational education. In addition 
to this selective feature, financial and geographical limi- 
tations are further reasons why the corporation school 
cannot become universal, and all are reasons why it can- 
not become compulsory or free. The question as to its 
non-sectarian character needs no discussion. 

The corporation school contributes to social effi- 
ciency;^^ it may also be controlled to a limited degree 
by the state, as is the case of many such schools in 
European countries. ^^ These two conditions lead the 
writer to the conclusion that some form of cooperative 
organization between the corporation school and the pub- 
lic school will be the chief factor in the ultimate solu- 
tion of the problem of vocational education. This point 
is developed further in the concluding paragraphs of 
this chapter. 

i2See Chapter III. 

i^See Chapter III: also Ref. 19, pp. 715-716; Ref. 31, p. 126. 

"Refs. 24 and 25. 

I'^See Chapter IV. 

"Ref. 20. 



Summary of Conclusions 107 

The discussion of corporation school efficiency in 
Chapter IV shows that : 

1. They tend to produce an adequate supply of young employees to 

meet the demands of industry. 

2. They supply the demand for men qualified for promotion to higher 

positions. 

3. They improve the character of work and the quality of the products. 

4. They reduce the turn over of labor, or increase the tenure of em- 

ployees. 

5. They tend to reduce waste of materials and the number of accidents 

by improving working conditions and by reducin_g carelessness 
and ignorance. 

The conclusions of Chapter V were that the teaching 
in public secondary schools and technical schools is su- 
perior to the teaching in corporation schools in : 

a) classroom management, 

b) definiteness of aim, 

c) assignment of lessons, 

d) breadth of view, 

e) development of culture, 

f) and recitation technique, 

and that the teaching in corporation schools is supe- 
rior in : 

g) responsiveness of class, 
h) mental discipline, and 

1) class attitude toward learning. 

The conclusion of Chapter VI is that the corporation 
school has what seem to be inherent advantages over 
public secondary schools and technical schools in such 
motives and incentives as : 

a) the relation of employer and employee, 

b) pecuniary interest, 

c) the shop situation, and 

d) real problems. 

The conclusion of Chapter VII is that the curricula 
and courses of public secondary schools and technical 
schools show, on the whole, a better logical and pedagog- 
ical organization than those of corporation schools, and 
that the latter are superior in being more specific and in 
having a closer relation between the materials employed 
and the ends sought, and that some show a decided su- 
periority in time allotments. 



108 Study of Corporation Schools 

The conclusion of Chapter VIII is that, in the matter 
of textbooks and lesson sheets, public secondary schools 
and technical schools are using better organized lesson 
materials than corporation) schools are using. 

The opening paragraphs of the present chapter stated 
the six fundamental principles upon which education in a 
democracy must be based, and the limitations upon the 
corporation school which prevent it from being consid- 
ered a satisfactory solution of the problem of universal 
vocational education. It was pointed out, however, that 
the corporation school through its contribution to voca- 
tional efficiency, may be an important factor in that 
solution. While a complete and satisfactory solution of 
the problem of vocational education has not been found 
in any of the phases of vocational education which have 
been studied, in the writer's opinion the cooperative 
trade and continuation school is a nearer approach to 
that solution than is offered by any other plan. 

The reasons upon which this conclusion is based are 
as follows : 

1. The cooperative trade and continuation school 

meets in actual practice, or can readily be 
made to meet, all the conditions of the six 
fundamental principles formulated above. 

2. In the cooperative trade and continuation school, 

it is possible to combine all the points of su- 
periority of the public secondary schools and 
technical schools and of corporation schools 
which have been found in the matter of in- 
struction, methods, motives, lesson materials, 
and curricula. 

3. The cooperative trade and continuation school is 

a success in actual practice. 

4. The cooperative trade and continuation school 

has the sanction of many of the educators, 
business men, labor leaders, legislators and 



Summary of Conclusions 109 

social workers who have given most thought 
to the matter of vocational and industrial edu- 
cation. 

The experience of several states^''^ and numerous 
municipalities in the United States in establishing and 
conducting some form of continuation school or coopera- 
tive trade school demonstrates the first of these proposi- 
tions, and the experience of Germany, France and Eng- 
land in establishing and maintaining such schools is 
further evidence on this point.^^ 

The second proposition is based upon the evidence of 
this study presented in Chapters IV to VIII, inclusive, 
which shows that corporation schools are superior in those 
phases of organization and administration of instruction 
in which public schools are confessedly weak, while these 
are strong where corporation schools are weak. The co- 
operative trade and continuation school furnishes the 
essential conditions for emphasizing these strong points 
and for eliminating or minimizing these weaknesses. 

The third proposition is justified by the information 
which the writer has collected by personal observation 
and otherwise. Company officials are unanimous in the 
statement that among the results of cooperation are the 
advantages discussed in Chapter IV. Among the coop- 
erative schools visited was the Cass Technical High School 
of Detroit, which is working in cooperation with thirty- 
one companies. These companies report that their em- 
ployees are from fifty to one hundred per cent better 
workmen because of the instruction received in the con- 
tinuation school. So satisfactory is the work that there 
is at present (February, 1917) a long waiting list of ap- 

"Vocational Education, Reports CommisBioner of Education, 1914- 
15-16. 

"Refs. 18, 21. 

"Circular: Industrial Part-time Continuation Classes, Cass Techni- 
cal High School. 



110 Study of Corporation Schools 

plieants for admission. ^^ This school offers both trade 
and continuation courses. 

, The writer has also secured information from a large 
number of other schools, either through school authori- 
ties or cooperating concerns, and this evidence substan- 
tiates the statement that the cooperative school is success- 
ful. The National Cash Register Company of Dayton, 
Ohio, is working in cooperation with the Dayton High 
School, and Mr. Adkins, for the Company, pronounces 
the work a success. ^o 

The cooperative school seems to be a natural out- 
growth of the corporation school. The R. Hoe Printing 
Press Company, of New York City, which established the 
first corporation school in the United States has recently 
(1915) entered into an agreement whereby the city Board 
of Education supplies all the teachers for the academic 
work of the apprenticeship school. ^i The General Elec- 
tric Company, of Schenectady, New York, which has main- 
tained a training department for many years has recently 
entered into a similar agreement with the Board of Edu- 
cation of Schenectady, 22 a^^j the plan is still (1916) in 
operation. Many similar cases are reported from Eng- 
land. ^^ 

The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Superintendent 
of Schools of New York shows that ten high schools are 
cooperating with sixty-three firms covering twenty-three 
occupations. The report also shows that cooperating 
schools are maintained in twenty-six business houses, in- 
cluding department stores, hotels, railroad shops, and 
public service companies. In these schools the companies 
furnish the schoolrooms and the board of education, the 
teachers. This report states ten conclusions based upon 
experience. Two of these are : * ' The industry profits by 

»>Ref. 19, pp. 308-314. 

«Ref. 27. p. 132. 

»Ref. 19, pp. 287-288. 

23Ref. 18, pp. 282, 289, 294, 301, 370. 



SUMMAEY OF CONCLUSIONS 



111 



the plan by securing better employees. ' * * * The plan does 
not necessarily prolong the period of high-school attend- 
ance for graduation. ' ' 

Table VIII shows a partial list of cooperating schools 
and companies from whom information has been secured. 



TABLE vni. 



Companies 



Schools 



Brighton Mills 

Burroughs Adding Machine Co. 
Chicago Telephone Co. 
Consolidated Gas, Elec. Light and 

Power Co. 
Simonds Manufacturing Co. 

and nine other companies. 
United Shoe Machinery Co. 
Six Companies 
Thirty-nine printing companies 

Six Department stores 

Sixty-three companies 
Twenty-six other organizations 
aside from the above 



Passaic N. J. H. S. 

Cass Technical H. S. Detroit 

Central Y. M. C. A. 

Baltimore Night School 

Fitchburg, Mass. H. S. 

Beverly, Mass. H. S. 

York, Pa. H. S. 

Chicago Typothetae School of 

Printing 
Union School of Salesmanship, 

Boston 
New York City High Schools 
New York Board of Education 

(schools in company buildings). 



If to this list be added the schools for higher training 
listed in Table III the momentum of the cooperative 
movement may be appreciated. The reports from these 
schools and the companies cooperating with them show 
no disposition to doubt that the cooperative school is a 
satisfactory and permanent solution of the problem of 
vocational education. 

The fourth proposition is a matter of the weight of 
cumulative opinion. While the cooperative plan of voca- 
tional education does not enjoy unanimous support of 
those who are interested in the problem, it does have the 
support of many of the strong men in this field. 

Mr. C. A. Prosser, says^* that the continuation school 
under state support and control is the most modern and 
up-to-date means of educating the young worker. 

Dr. David Snedden, until recently Commissioner of 
Education of Massachusetts, says^^^ that the part-time 



"N. A. C. S. Bulletin, July, 1916. 
»Ref. 22a, p. 49. 



112 Study of Corporation Schools 

cooperative school is destined to become a permanent 
form of vocational education, and that nothing short of 
legislation compelling town and shop to cooperate, will 
ever give to us, as it gave to early England and modern 
Germany, a national system of industrial education. He 
says further that the belief is rapidly gaining ground, 
that a large part of vocational education should be ob- 
tained through actual participation in the pursuit, under 
commercial conditions, of the occupation itself, but so 
controlled as to make education rather than earnings the 
chief objective, and that such participation must be 
under the direction of the agency responsible for the 
effective vocational education of the novice. 

The Hon. W. C. Redfield says:^^ ''What is needed is 
a complete system of vocational education with due rela- 
tion to industry. ' ' 

The Report of the Committee on Vocational Educa- 
tion of the National Education Association, composed of 
twelve prominent educators and representative men in- 
terested in vocational education states r^^ ''that theoretic- 
ally vocational education under the cooperative system 
should ultimately prove most effective, depending upon 
the effective coordination of the separate agencies, ^^ . . 
. . and experience has shown that this coordination is 
perfectly possible. '* 

Dr. Clifford B. Conelley, of the Carnegie Institute 
of Technology, expresses the opinion that if we take away 
the direct backing of the corporation and leave the cor- 
poration school with all its essential details as organized 
by the company, we have the school best fitted for modern 
conditions. This would really be the continuation 
school. 29 

R. S. Cooley, director of continuation schools in Mil- 

^N. A. C. S. Bulletin, July, 1916. 

2^Bureau of Education, Bulletin 21, 1916. 

"Report Committee on Vocational Education, N. E. A. 1916. 

'^Journal N. E. A. pp. 412 et aeq. 1916. 



Summary of Conclusions 113 

waukee, states^^ that ''In one year, the continuation 
school brought back into school 5,000 young people under 
sixteen years of age, who had left school to work. 

Dr. George Myers,^^ who has made a special study 
of vocational education in Germany, concludes that any 
satisfactory solution of the problem of vocational educa- 
tion must include some form of cooperative school work, 
and that the continuation school idea is growing in 
Prussia. 

Supt. John D. Shoop, of the Chicago schools empha- 
sizes the fact that vocational education must come 
through cooperation. ' ' The interplay of interest between 
the school and the shop, the classroom and the commer- 
cial world, constitute the most promising and hopeful 
indication of the final solution of the problem of voca- 
tional education. "32 

Conclusion 

The argument of this summary of conclusions, of per- 
sonal opinions, and of committee resolutions, is further 
strengthened by the facts that, within the past five years 
seven states have provided by legislation^^ for some form 
of cooperative or continuation school for industrial and 
vocational training, and congressional enactment in the 
Smith-Hughes Bill,^^ has recently provided for federal 
aid for vocational education. The writer believes that 
this evidence justifies the conclusion that the cooperative 
trade and continuation school is the solution of the prob- 
lem of vocational education. 

•"op cit. 

3»Ref. 20. 

'^Journal, N. E. A. Jan. 1917, p. 112. 

'^Report Commissioner of Education, 1916. (see also next Ref.) 

"Natl. Society for the Promotion of Indus. Educ. Bulletin 25. 



114 Study of Corporation Schools 



VITA 

Albert James Beatty was born at LaMoille, Illinois, 
July 20th, 1871, and received his early education on his 
father 's farm and in the country school. He attended the 
LaMoille high school but left school to teach, before grad- 
uation. He graduated from the Northern Illinois Normal 
School in 1893 with the degree B. S., from Knox College 
in 1900 with the degree A. B., and from the University 
of Illinois in 1915 with the degree A. M. 

He was principal of schools at Wyanet, Illinois, from 
1894 to 1902 ; principal of the Ottawa, Kansas, high school 
from 1902 to 1904 ; superintendent of schools at Wamego, 
Kansas, from 1904 to 1906; instructor in mathematics 
and geography at the Marion Normal College, Marion, 
Indiana, from 1906 to 1907 ; superintendent of schools at 
Farmington, Illinois, from 1907 to 1911 ; superintendent 
of schools and principal of the township high school at 
Geneseo, Illinois, from 1911 to 1914 ; and graduate stu- 
dent in education at the University of Illinois from 1914 
to 1917. 

At the Geneseo Township High School he organized 
the first ''Winter Semester Curriculum for farmers' 
sons, ' ' offered by an Illinois high school. He also assisted 
in the organization of the Henry County Interscholastie 
and Athletic Association, and was president of this asso- 
ciation in 1913 to 1914. 

During the year 1915 he assisted the Special Training 
Schools Committee of the National Association of Cor- 
poration Schools to study this type of schools, and during 
the year 1916-1917, he has been a regular member of the 
committee. During both years he has contributed largely 
to the reports of this conunittee. 



Bibliography 115 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The following abbreviations are used; 

N. E. A. National Education Association 

N. S. P. I. E. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu- 
cation. 
N. A. C. S. National Association of Corporation Schools. 



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3. Dunlop, O. J. and Denham, R. D. English Apprenticeship and i 

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6. "Wright, Carroll D. The Apprenticeship System in Relation to In- 

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11. Plutarch, Numa, 17. 

12. Dilts Roman Society in the Last Century of the Empire, bk. II, 

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14. Graves, F. (P. Great Educators of Three Centuries. 

15. Tawney R. *H. The Agrarian Public of the Sixteenth Century, 

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16. U. S. Commissioner of Labor, 17th annual report, 1902. 

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17. U. S. Dept. of Labor, bul. 33, 1915. 

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18. Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere. 

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21. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1915. 

22. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1910. 

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24. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 20. 

25. ,N. S. P. I. E. rrport fift)i annual convention. 

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28. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 2, biblography on industrial education. 

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*»*c-. 



116 Study of Corporation Schools 



29. National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, Year 

book, pt. I, 1912. 

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31. N. A. C. S. report first annual convention, 1913. 

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corporation school movement, Printers' Ink, June 5th, 1913. 
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33. N. A. C. S. second annual report, 1914. 

34. National Safety Council, proceedings fourth annual convention. 

35. National Association of Manufacturers, bul. 22. 

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(Pennsylvania and "Wisconsin. 

36. The Ford Guide, Ford Motor Co. 

37. English School circular, Ford Motor Co. 

38. Cassiers' Magazine, vol. 23, p. 199. 

39. Davis C. 0. High School Courses of Study. 

40. Dewey, J. Democracy and Education. 

41. Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process, Chap. III. 

42. Advance report codification committee N. A. C. S. 1916. 

43. U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 37, 1916. 

44. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 11. 

45. Wilson H. B. and G. W. Motivation in School Work. 

46. Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools. 



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